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BOSTON
MEDICAL LIBRARY

IN THE

Francis A.Countway
Library of Medicine

BOSTON

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EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS

ON THE

GASTRIC JUICE,

AND THE

PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2011 with funding from

Open Knowledge Commons and Harvard Medical School

http://www.archive.org/details/experimentsobserOObeau

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS

ON THE

GASTRIC JUICE,

AND THE

PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION.

WILLIAM BEAUMONT, M.D.

SURGEON IN THE UNITED STATES' ARMY.
REPRINTED FROM THE PLATTSBURGH EDITION, WITH NOTES BY

ANDREW COMBE, M.D.

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF EDINBURGH ; PHYSICIAN

EXTRAORDINARY TO THE QUEEN IX SCOTLAND, AND CONSULTING

PHYSICIAN TO THE KING AND QUEEN OF THE BELGIANS.

EDINBURGH:

MACLACHLAN & STEWART, SOUTH BRIDGE ;
AND SIMPKIN, MARSHALL & CO., LONDON.

MDCCCXXXVIII.

/3 a. 4 f / — i^^

PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., OLD FISHMARKET, EDTNBQRGH.

PREFACE BY THE EDITOR.

The reasons which have induced me to reprint
the present work from the American original, are,
1st, A strong sense of its inherent importance and of
the numerous applications which may be made of
the facts and principles developed in it to the pre-
vention and cure of disease ; ^dly, Its comparative
inaccessibility to the European physiologist from the
difficulty which still exists of procuring it on this
side of the Atlantic ; and, lastly. An earnest desire
that the author should obtain that credit which is
unquestionably due to his disinterested and indefa-
tigable labours.

The value of Dr Beaumonfs experiments consists
partly in the admirable opportunities for observa-
tion which he enjoyed, and partly in the candid and
truth-seeking spirit in which all his inquiries seem
to have been conducted. Two or three other cases
have indeed occurred in which the cavity of the sto-
jnach was laid open by external wounds, but in

VI PREFACE BY THE EDITOR.

none except that of Alexis St Martin, observed by
Dr Beaumont, did perfect recovery take place while
the opening remained unclosed. In all of them,
death occurred in a longer or shorter time, without
affording any opportunity of observing the pheno-
mena of really healthy digestion. In St Martin,
however, notwithstanding the severity of the wound,
recovery was so complete that he continued for years
(and, I believe, still continues) to lead a laborious
life in the enjoyment of vigorous health, while diges-
tion was as regular and effective as if no opening
into the stomach had ever existed, or as if that once
made had been entirely closed. For nearly eleven
years after his accident, St Martin continued more
or less under Dr Beaumont's observation, and during
several years of that time lived in his house as a do-
mestic servant, for the express purpose of being ex-
perimented upon. So far, then, as opportunity for
observation was concerned, nothing could surpass
that enjoyed by Dr Beaumont.

That Dr Beaumont eagerly and zealously availed
himself of his unusual advantages, the following
pages furnish ample evidence, and it would, I think,
be difficult to point out any observer who excels
him in devotion to truth, and freedom from the
trammels of theory or prejudice. Among the disci-
plined physiologists of Europe, a more systematic
experimenter might certainly have been found, but

PREFACE BY THE EDITOR. Vll

in Dr Beaumont's instance, the absence of systema-
tized inquiry — made too generally in support of a
preconceived theory, and therefore apt to mislead
as well as to instruct — is more than compensated by
the implicit reliance which one feels can be placed
on the accuracy and candour of his statements.
Having no theory to support, and no favourite point
to establish, Dr Beaumont tells plainly what he saw,
and leaves every one to draw his own inferences, or
where he lays down conclusions, he does so with a
degree of modesty and fairness of which few perhaps
in his circumstances would have been capable,*

But, it may be said, singularly favourable as t)r
Beaumont's opportunities were, he has made no ori-
ginal discovery in the physiology of digestion. To
a certain extent this is true, for in the proper sense
of the word he has not made and does not claim to
have made any discovery, but he has done what is
at least equally essential for practical purposes. By
separating the truth clearly and unequivocally from
the numerous errors of fact and opinion with which
it was mixed up, and thus converting into certain-

* In proof of Dr Beaumont's disinterestedness in conducting
the inquiry, I may mention that I have learned from private
sources that the expenses attending the various series of experi-
ments exceeded in amount L.700 Sterling, the whole of which
was defrayed by himself, and for repayment of which he was ad-
vised to apply to Congress, on the ground of the public being in-
terested in the promotion of scientific discovery ; but although the
American Treasury was at the time literally overflowing, the ap-
plication was refused.

Vlll PREFACE BY THE EDITOR.

ties points of doctrine in regard to which positive
proofs were previously inaccessible, he has given to
what was doubtful or imperfectly known, a fixed
and positive value, which it never had before, and
which being once obtained, goes far to furnish us
with a clear, connected, and consistent view of the
general process and laws of digestion. Other physio-
logists have attempted to effect the same end by expe-
riments performed upon the lower animals, but these
are open to so many forcible objections, that we can-
not always adopt their conclusions, even where they
seem to be most clearly deduced. Not to mention
the cruelty inseparable from the performance of such
experiments, the pain which the animal suflPers ne-
cessarily disturbs the regularity of the function under
examination, and in a greater or less degree vitiates
the results. And even if this were not the case,
the difference between the digestive organs in man
and in the lower animals is so great, that it would
often be unsafe to assume conclusions as applicable
to the former which have been verified only in the
latter.

In perusing the present volume, it is proper to
bear in mind the circumstances under which the ex-
periments were made, and the account of them was
written. Dr Beaumont was far from enjoying the
leisure, resources, and scientific co-operation so easily
accessible to the physiologists of any of our Euro-.

PREFACE BY THE EDITOR. IX

pean capitals. Stationed in a comparatively remote
quarter in the exercise of his duties as an army sur-
geon, and previously unaccustomed to minute phy-
siological research, he conducted his inquiry under
many minor disadvantages. When he came to pub-
lish also, his want of experience in writing prevent-
ed him from making the most of his materials, and
doing that justice to himself which he might other-
wise have easily accomplished. In the arrangement
of his experiments, for example, Dr Beaumont has
followed the order of time, and thus mingled many
things together, where a more practised inquirer
would have classified them according to the subjects
in illustration of which they were performed, and
thus given a greater unity of purpose to each of the
different series of which they are composed. But al-
though this defect diminishes the facility of access
to the results, it by no means detracts from their in-
trinsic value. On the contrary, the very absence of
systematized arrangement leaves a character of even
greater trust-worthiness attached to the individual
observations than if the latter had been made under
the influence of some prominent guiding principle,
which might have given a bias to the mind.

When preparing the following pages for the press,
I took a good deal of trouble in an attempt to
remedy the above defects of arrangement, but the
original absence of method had led to such an inter-

X PREFACE BY THE EDITOR.

mixture of topics as to render their proper classifi-
cation impossible, and I was obliged to give it up.
I have, however, endeavoured to facilitate reference
by prefixing to each chapter a short summary of its
contents, and by adding illustrative notes wherever
it could be done with advantage. To the substance
of the text I have, of course, carefully adhered ;
but I have taken the liberty of altering, and I trust
improving, the arrangement of the table illustrative
of the digestibility of different kinds of food, occur-
ring at page 292, and of the " concluding Infe-
rences^' at page 298. The object of both these al-
terations was simply to present the different sub-
jects in a more natural and instructive order than
the author himself has done.

As the first division of the work now stands, the
reader will remark a considerable similarity between
it and the corresponding part of a volume published
by me about two years ago.* The similarity exists,
so far as the physiological expositions are concerned,
because the subjects treated of are nearly the same,
and most of the doctrines advanced are peculiar to
neither of us, but are those which have long been
more or less firmly established ; and also because I
naturally availed myself of Dr Beaumont's observa-
tions, as the latest and most accurate, wherever I

* The Physiology of Digestion considered in relation to the
Principles of Dietetics, 2d edition. Edinburgh, 1837.

PREFACE BY THE EDITOR. XI

could turn them to account in confirming what was
before doubtful, or correcting what he proved to be
erroneous. But, except in the purely physiological ex-
position of the subjects, there is a difference between
us, corresponding to the different purposes for which
we wrote. Dr Beaumont's sole object was to extend
our knowledge of the physiology of digestion, without
direct reference to any practical end. My chief aim,
on the other hand, was to lay the foundation of a
proper system of Dietetics, and to treat of the or-
gans and physiology of digestion, only as bearing
upon this point, and as the real basis on which all
dietetic rules ought to rest. Accordingly, although
we both treat of Mastication, Insalivation, Degluti-
tion, Chymification, &c., Dr Beaumont limits him-
self purely to a physiological exposition, while I treat
of them, not only physiologically, but also with re-
ference to the organization which executes them,
and the means by which their healthy action may be
most effectually promoted, preserved, or restored.
But, while profiting by that gentleman's labours
to enforce more authoritatively the practical truths
which it was my chief object to inculcate, I have
always been anxious to render him that ample
measure of justice to which he is so eminently
entitled ; and accordingly, in the preface to my
book, I expressly mention, that, " in preparing
the present volume for the press, I have derived the

Xll PREFACE BY THE EDITOR.

utmost advantage from a very valuable work by
Dr Beaumont, an American writer, which, though
scarcely at all known in this country, contains an
authentic record of some of the most curious and
instructive observations which have ever been made
on the subject of Digestion. That excellent and
enlightened physiologist had the rare good fortune
to meet with a case in which an artificial opening
into the stomach existed, through which he could
see every thing that took place during the progress
of healthy digestion ; and, with the most disinterest-
ed zeal and admirable perseverance, he proceeded
to avail himself of the opportunity thus afforded of
advancing human knowledge, by engaging the pa-
tient, at a heavy expense, to live with him for seve-
ral years, and become the subject of numerous and
carefully conducted experiments. Of the results
thus obtained, I have not scrupled to make the
freest and most ample use, — not from considering
them as positively new (for even Dr Beaumont lays
little claim to the merit of a discoverer), but because
they come before us so entirely freed from the nu-
merous sources of error and doubt which formerly
impaired their value, that they can now, for the first
time, be safely trusted as practical guides in the
science of Dietetics. From Dr Beaumont's work
also being still inaccessible to the British reader, it
is a bare act of justice towards him, and also the

PREFACE BY THE EDITOR. XIU

best way of fulfilling the objects he had in view, to
make its contents known as widely as possible ; for
wherever they are known, they will be acknowledged
to redound to his credit, not less as a man than as a
philosopher."— (Preface, p. xxv.)

So much, indeed, did I consider the republication
of Dr Beaumon^s work as a matter of justice to him,
that, had I not expected its appearance from some
other quarter long ago, I would have undertaken
the task at an earlier period, and, even now, I can
account for the omission only by supposing that
very few copies of the original have reached this
country. Everywhere, both in British and foreign
books, we meet with reference to, and often inac-
curate extracts from it, but almost nowhere is it
spoken of as if the work itself had been consulted. I
trust then, that in now presenting it, I shall be con-
sidered as rendering an acceptable service to British
and Continental physiologists, as well as a pleasing
act of justice to its deserving author.

Actuated by the feeling that knowledge is valua-
ble chiefly for the uses to which it may be applied,
I have ventured to add a supplementary chapter,
embodying a few of the practical conclusions which
may be deduced from the experiments of Dr Beau-
mont, but finding that, to do full justice to them,
would both add to the size of the volume, and ne-
cessarily involve a repetition of several topics already

XIV PREFACE BY THE EDITOU.

discussed in the work referred to, I have judged it
better not to enter too largely upon this branch of
the subject, particularly as the professional reader
can deduce his own inferences for himself. I may,
however, add, in reference to the table exhibit-
ing the relative digestibility of different articles of
diet, that its results ought to be received, not as
certainties, but only as approximations to the truth.
The rapidity of digestion is so much influenced by
the quantity eaten, the degree of preparatory mas-
tication, the amount of exercise, the mode of life,
and state of health, that no positive conclusions on
that point can be drawn, except where due attention
has been paid to all these modifying circumstances.
In the following experiments, however, Dr Beau-
monfs chief aim was to ascertain the nature and
laws of the digestive process, and his observations
on the comparative digestibility of different sub-
stances, were thus too incidental to be relied upon
as minutely accurate ; but in a general way they
are well worthy of attention.

In the second edition of the " Physiology of Di-
gestion" I ventured to suggest, that some of our
scientific associations, such as the Royal Society or
British Association, would do science a service and
themselves an honour, by using their influence and
means to have St Martin brought over to this coun-
try, and the remainder of the subject fully investi-

PREFACE BY THE EDITOR. XV

gated under the direction of a committee of their
number. An opportunity of this kind may never
occur again, and it will be a source of lasting re-
gret, and even of merited reproach, if it be allowed
to pass away without being turned to the best pos-
sible account. If the suggestion now thrown out
shall ever be acted upon, special care should be taken
not to injure St Martin's health by withdrawing him
entirelv from his accustomed diet and mode of Kfe,
otherwise the whole value of the experiment may be
lost, — the object being to ascertain the laws and con-
ditions of HEALTHY DIGESTION.

Edinburgh, April 1838.

CONTENTS.

Author's Prefac e, . . . . . 1-3

CHAPTER I.

HISTORY OF THE CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN.

St Martin's Stomach perforated by a musket-shot — Situation
and nature of the wound — His treatment and recovery —
External opening into the stomach remains unclosed —
Mode of extracting gastric juice through the opening —
Extraordinary facilities presented for experimenting on
digestion, by introducing and withdrawing food through
the opening, and observing its changes — Woodcuts repre-
senting the appearance of the wound after recovery, and
the valve by which the opening is filled up, . • 7-23

CHAPTER II.
OF ALIMENT.

Man an omnivorous animal — Nature of animal food — The ulti-
mate principles of aliment the same, whether derived
from animals or vegetables — The action of the stomach
on food always the same — The quantity of nutriment re-
quired varies according to circumstances — The quality is
also important — Variety is required — Table of digesti-
bility of various substances — Animal more quickly di-
gested than vegetable food — Minuteness of division in-
fluential on digestion — Fish easily digested — Condiments
not essential — Drink necessary — Effect of Wine — Quan-
tity more influential than quality, .... 24.42

XVlll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.
OF HUNGER AND THIRST.

Hunger — Its exciting cause — Different theories of— The Au-
thor's theory of hunger — Thirst and its causes — Objec-
tions to the Author's theory of hunger, . . . 43-51

Note by the Editor, 51-53

CHAPTER IV.

OF SATISFACTION AND SATIETY.

Quantity of food required — Satiety not a proper guide — The
first feeling of satisfaction is the true indication — Gastric
juice secreted in relation to this indication, . . 54-57

CHAPTER V.
MASTICATION, INSALIVATION, AND DEGLUTITION.

Uses of mastication — Nature and use of saliva — Saliva not
essential to digestion — Mastication essential as a meaaas
of dividing food into minute portions — Deglutition ought
to be slow, as the stomach admits only of slow disten-
tion, 58-63

Note by the Editor, 63

CHAPTER VI.

OF DIGESTION BY THE GASTRIC JUICE.

Chymification — Agents of. — Spallanzani's theory of Diges-
tion— Common opinions regarding the gastric juice — Gas-
tric juice has a solvent power — Analysis of — Composition
of — Its action is purely chemical — Gastric juice described
— Its quantity proportioned to wants of the system — Its
secretion and action begin on the contact of food— Evils
of frequent eating explained — Gastric juice supplied to
all the food at once when the latter is not in excess — Old
and new food mix — Effects of exercise on digestion — Bile
not essential to chymification — Chyme, its nature and pro-
gress— Montegre's theory of digestion — Smith's and Jack-
son's theories — General remarks, .... 64-93

CONTENTS, XIX

CHAPTER VII.

OF THE APPEARANCE OF THE VILLOUS COAT, AND OF
THE MOTIONS OF THE STOMACH.

Appearance of the villous coat — Gastric Papillae — Healthy
aspect of the villous coat — Its aspect in disease — Motions
in the stomach — Effects of — Order of contraction in the
muscular fibres of the stomach — Passage of the chyme out
of the stomach, 94-10?

CHAPTER VIII.

OF CHYLIFICATION, AND THE USES OF THE BILE AND
• PANCREATIC JUICE,

Passage of chyme into the duodenum — and there converted
into chyle by the agency of the bile and pancreatic juice
— Chyle always the same in health — Changes occurring in
the duodenum, ....... 108-116

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

First Series, 117-14!

Second Series, 124-166

Third Series, 167-242

Note by the Editor, 243-243

Microscopic Examinations, 245-246

Fourth Series, 247-255

Note by the Editor, . 253-255

Experiments, &c. 255-291

Table shewing the Mean Time of Digestion of tlie different
Articles of Diet, naturally, in the Stomach, and artificially
in Vials, on a Bath, ...... 292-29S

Table shewing the Temperature of the Interior of the Stomach
in different Conditions, taken in different Seasons of the
Year, and at various times of the Day, from 5 o'clock in
the Morning till 12 o'clock at night, . . . 295-296

Inferences from the foregoing Experiments and Observa-
tions, 298-303

Concluding Remarks by the Editor, . . . . 303-328

PREFACE.

The present age is prolific of works on physiology ;
therefore in offering to the public another book relative
to an important branch of this science, it will, perhaps,
be necessary to assign my motives.

They are, first, a wish to comply with the repeated
and urgent solicitations of many medical men who have
become partially acquainted with the facts and observa-
tions it is my intention to detail ; men in whose judg-
ment I place confidence, and who have expressed their
conviction of the deep importance of the experiments,
the result of which I mean herewith to submit to the
public : secondly, (and it is that which mainly influences
me,) my own firm conviction that medical science will
be forwarded by the publication.

I am fully aware of the importance of the subject which
these experiments are intended to illustrate, as well in a
pathological as in a physiological point of view ; and I am
therefore willing to risk the censure or neglect of critics,
if I may be permitted to cast my mite into the treasury
of knowledge, and to be the means, either directly or in-

^ PREFACE.

directly, of subserving the cause of truth, and amelio-
rating the condition of suffering humanity.

I make no claim to originality in my opinions, as it re-
spects the existence and operation of the gastric juice.
My experiments confirm the doctrines (with some modi-
fications) taught by Spallanzani, and many of the most
enlightened physiological writers. They are experiments
made in the true spirit of inquiry, suggested by the very
extraordinary case which gave me an opportunity of
making them. I had no particular hypothesis to support ;
and I have therefore honestly recorded the result of each
experiment exactly as it occurred.

The reader will perceive some slight seeming discre-
pancies, which he may find it difficult to reconcile ; but
he will recollect that the human machine is endowed with
a vitality which modifies its movements in different states
of the system, and probably produces some diversity of
effects from the same causes.

I had opportunities for the examination of the interior
of the stomach, and its secretions, which have never be-
fore been so fully offered to any one. This most im-
portant organ, its secretions and its operations, have been
submitted to my observation in a very extraordinary man-
ner, in a state of perfect health, and for years in succes-
sion. I have availed myself of the opportunity afforded
by a concurrence of circumstances which probably can
never again occur, with a zeal and perseverance proceed-
ing from motives which my conscience approves ; and I
now submit the result of my experiments to an enlight-

PREFACE. 3

ened public, who, I doubt not, will duly appreciate the
truths discovered, and the confirmation of opinions which
before rested on conjecture.

I submit a body of facts which cannot be invalidated.
My opinions may be doubted, denied, or approved, ac-
cording as they conflict or agree with the opinions of
each individual who may read them ; but their worth
will be best determined by the foundation on which they
rest — the incontrovertible facts.

I avail myself of this opportunity to make my grateful
acknowledgments to Doctor Joseph"^ Lovell, Surgeon-
General of the United States' Army, (to whom I am un-
der obligations for personal kindness and official exer-
tions in affording facilities for prosecuting the experi-
ments ;) — to Professors Silliman, Knight, Ives, and Hub-
bard, of Yale College ; Dunglison, of the Virginia Uni-
versity, and Sewal, Jones, Henderson, and Hall, of
Columbian College, for their unsolicited friendship ; for
the interest which they have taken in the experiments,
and for the generous encouragement which they have
given to the proposed publication. To Doctor Samuel
Beaumont, of Plattsburgh, N. Y., I am particularly in-
debted, for the assistance which he has rendered me in
arranging and preparing my notes for the press.

Plattsburgh, 1833.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.

( 7 )

CHAPTER I.

HISTORY OF THE CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN.

St Martin's Stomach perforated by a musket-shot — Situation and
nature of the wound — His treatment and recovery — Ex-
ternal opening into the stomach remains unclosed — Mode of
extracting gastric juice through the opening — Extraordinary
facilities presented for experimenting on digestion, by intro-
ducing and withdrawing food through the opening, and ob-
serving its changes — Woodcuts representing the appearance
of the wound after recovery, and the valve by which the
opening is filled up.

The experiments which follow were commenced in
1825, and have been continued, with various interrup-
tions to the present time, (1833). The opportunity for
making them was afforded to me in the following way.

Whilst stationed at Michillimackinac, Michigan Terri-
tory, in 1822, in the military service of the United States,
the following case of surgery came under my care and
treatment.

Alexis St Martin, who is the subject of these experi-
ments, was a Canadian, of French descent, at the above
mentioned time about eighteen years of age, of good con-
stitution, robust and healthy. He had been engaged in
the service of the American Fur Company, as a voyageur,
and was accidentally wounded by the discharge of a mus-
ket, on the 6th of June 1822.

8 CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN.

The charge, consisting of powder and duck-shot, was
received in the left siae of the youth, he being at a dis-
tance of not more than one yard from the muzzle of the
gun. The contents entered posteriorly, and in an oblique
direction, forward and inward, literally blowing off inte-
guments and muscles of the size of a man's hand, frac-
turing and carrying away the anterior half of the sixth
rib, fracturing the fifth, lacerating the lower portion of
the left lobe of the lungs, the diaphragm, and perforating
the stomach.

The whole mass of materials forced from the muskety
together with fragments of clothing and pieces of frac-
tured ribs, were driven into the muscles and cavity of
the chest.

I saw him in twenty-five or thirty minutes after the
accident occurred, and, on examination, found a portion
of the lung as large as a turkey's egg, protruding through
the external wound, lacerated and burnt ; and imme-
diately below this, another protrusion, which, on further
examination, proved to be a portion of the stomach, la-
cerated through all its coats, and pouring out the food he
had taken for his breakfast, through an orifice large
enough to admit the forefinger.

In attempting to return the protruded portion of the
lung, I was prevented by a sharp point of the fractured
rib, over which it had caught by its membranes ; but by
raising it with my finger, and clipping off the point of the
rib, I was able to return it into its proper cavity, though
it could not be retained there, on account of the inces«

CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN. 9

sant efforts to cough. The projecting portion of the
stomach was nearly as large as that of the lung. It passed
through the lacerated diaphragm and external wound,
mingling the food with the bloody mucus blown from the
lungs.

, After cleansing the wound from the charge and other
extraneous matter, and replacing the stomach and lungs
as far as practicable, I applied the carbonated fermenting
poultice, and kept the surrounding parts constantly wet
with a lotion of muriate of ammonia and vinegar ; and
gave internally the aq. acet. am. with camphor, in liberal
quantities.

Under this treatment a strong reaction took place in
about twenty-four hours, accompanied with high arterial
excitement, fever, and marked symptoms of inflammation
of the lining membranes of the chest and abdomen, great
difficulty of breathing, and distressing cough. He was
bled to the amount of eighteen or twenty ounces, and
took a cathartic. The bleeding reduced the arterial ac
tion, and gave relief. The cathartic had no effect, as it
escaped from the stomach through the wound.

On the fifth day a partial sloughing of the integu-
ments and muscles took-place. Some of the protruded
portions of the lung, and lacerated parts of the stomach,
also sloughed, and left a perforation into the stomach,
plainly to be seen, large enough to admit the whole
length of my fore-finger into its cavity ; and also a pas-
sage into the chest, half as large as my fist, exposing to

10 CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN.

view a part of the lung, and permitting the free escape
of air and bloody mucus at every respiration. A violent
fever continued for ten days, running into a typhoid
type, and the wound became very fcetid.

On the eleventh day, a more extensive sloughing took
place, the febrile symptoms subsided, and the whole sur-
face of the wound assumed a healthy and granulating ap-
pearance.

For seventeen days, all that entered his stomach by
the oesophagus, soon passed out through the wound ; and
the only way of sustaining him was by means of nutri-
cious injections per anum, until compresses and adhesive
straps could be applied so as to retain his food. During
this period no alvine evacuations could be obtained, al-
though cathartic injections were given, and various other
means were adopted to promote them.

In a few days after firm dressings were applied, and
the contents of the stomach retained, the bowels became
gradually excited, and, with the aid of cathartic injec-
tions, a very hard, black, fcetid stool was procured, fol-
lowed by several similar ones ; after which the bowels
became quite regular, and continued so. The cataplasms
were continued until the sloughing was completed, and
the granulating process fully established ; and were af-
terwards occasionally resorted to, when the wound be-
came ill conditioned. The aq. acet. am. with camphor
was also continued for several weeks, in proportion to
the febrile symptoms and the foetid condition of the
wound.

CASE^OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN. 11

No sickness nor unusual irritation of the stomach, not
even the slightest nausea, was manifest during the whole
time ; and after the fourth week, the appetite became
good, digestion regular, the alvine evacuations natural,
and all the functions of the system perfect and natural.
By the adhesion of the sides of the protruded portions
of the stomach to the pleura costalis and the external
wound, a free exit was aflPorded to the contents of that
organ, and effusion into the abdominal cavity was thereby
prevented.

Cicatrization and contraction of the external wound
commenced on the fifth week ; the stomach became more
firmly attached to the pleura and intercostals, by its ex-
ternal coats ; but shewed not the least disposition to close
its orifice ; this (the orifice) terminated as if by a natu-
ral boundary, and left the perforation, resembling, in all
but a sphincter, the natural anus, with a slight prolapsus.
^' Whenever the wound was dressed, the contents of the
stomach would flow out, in proportion to the quantity
recently taken. If the stomach happened to be empty,
or nearly so, a partial inversion would take place, unless
prevented by the application of the finger. Frequently
in consequence of the derangement of the dressing, the
inverted part would be found of the size of a hen's egg.
No difficulty, however, was experienced in reducing it
by gentle pressure with the finger, or a sponge wet with
cold water, neither of which produced the least pain.

The annexed figure represents the protruded portion.
AAAAA, are the folds or rugae of the inner surface of

12 CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN.

the stomach ; BBB are the interstices filled with mu-
cous substance ; C shews the situation of the nipple.

In the seventh week, exfoliation of the ribs, and a
separation of their cartilaginous ends, began to take
place.

The sixth rib was denuded of its periosteum for about
two inches from the fractured part, so that I was obliged
to amputate it about three or four inches from its arti-
culation with the rib. This I accomplished by dissect-
ing back the muscles, securing the intercostal artery, and
sawing off the bone with a very fine narrow saw, made
for the purpose, introduced between the ribs, without in-
jury to the neighbouring parts. Healthy granulations
soon appeared, and formed soundly over the amputated

CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN. 13

end. About half the inferior edge of the fifth rib exfol-
iated, and separated from its cartilage.

After the removal of these pieces of bone, I attempted
to contract the wound, and close the perforation of the
stomach, by gradually drawing the edges together with
adhesive straps, laid on in a radiated form.

The circumference of the external wound was at least
twelve inches, and the orifice in the stomach nearly in
the centre, two inches below the left nipple, on a line
drawn from this to the point of the left ilium.

To retain his food and drinks, I kept a compress and
tent of lint, fitted to the shape and size of the perforation,
and confined there by adhesive straps.

After trying all the means in my power for eight or
ten months to close the orifice, by exciting adhesive in-
flammation in the lips of the wound, without the least
appearance of success, I gave it up as impracticable in
any other way than that of incising and bringing them
together by sutures ; an operation to which the patient
would not submit.

By the sloughing of the injured portion of the lung, a
cavity was left as large as a common sized tea cup, from
which continued a copious discharge of pus for three
months, when it became filled with healthy granulations,
firmly adhering to the pleura, and soundly cicatrized over
that part of the wound.

Four months after the injury was received, an abscess
formed about two inches below the wound, nearly over
the cartilaginous ends of the first and second false ribs.

14 CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN.

very painful, and extremely sore, producing violent symp-
tomatic fever. On the application of an emollient poul-
tice, it pointed externally. It was then laid open to the
extent of three inches, and several shot and pieces of wad
extracted. After which a gum -elastic bougie could be
introduced three or four inches in the longitudinal di-
rection of the ribs, towards the spine. Great pain and
soreness extended from the opening of the abscess, along
the track of the cartilaginous ends of the false ribs, to
the spine, with a copious discharge from the sinus.

In five or six days, there came away a cartilage, one
inch in length. In six or seven days more, another, an
inch and a half long ; and in about the same length of
time, a third, two inches long, were discharged. And
they continued to come away every five or six days, un-
til Jive were discharged from the same opening, the last
three inches in length. They were all entire, and evi-
dently separated from the false ribs.

The discharge, pain, and irritation, during the four or
five weeks these cartilages were working out, greatly
reduced the strength of the patient, produced a general
febrile habit, and stopped the healing process of the ori-
ginal wound.

Directly after the discharge of the last cartilage, in-
flammation commenced over the lower end of the ster-
num, which, by the usual applications, terminated in a
few days in a large abscess, and from which, by laying
it open two inches, I extracted another cartilage, three
inches in length. The inflammation then abated ; and

CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN. 15

in a day or two another piece came away, and the dis-
charge subsided.

To support the patient under all these debilitating cir-
cumstances, I administered wine, with diluted muriatic
acid, and thirty or forty drops of the tincture of assafoe-
tida, three times a-day ; which appeared to produce the
desired eflPect, and very much improved the condition of
the wound.

On the third of January 1823, 1 extracted another
cartilage from the opening over the sternum, an inch and
a half long ; and on the fourth another, two inches and a
half in length, an inch broad at one end, and narrowing
to less than half an inch at the other. This must have
been the ensiform cartilage of the sternum. After this
the sinus closed, and there was no return of inflammation.

From the month of April 1823, at which time he had
so far recovered as to be able to walk about and do light
work, enjoying his usual good appetite and digestion, he
continued with me, rapidly regaining his health and
strength.

By the 6th of June 1 823, one year from the time of
the accident, the injured parts were all sound, and firmly
cicatrized, with the exception of the aperture in the sto*
mach and side. This continued much in the same situ-
ation as it was six weeks after the wound was received.
The perforation was about two and a half inches in cir-
cumference, and the food and drinks constantly exuded,
unless prevented by a tent, compress and bandage.

From this time he continued gradually to improve in

16 CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN.

health and strength, and the newly formed integuments
over the wound became firmer and firmer. At the point
where the lacerated edges of the muscular coat of the
stomach and intercostal muscles met and united with the
cutis vera, the cuticle of the external surface and the
mucous membrane of the stomach approached each other
very nearly. They did not unite, like those of the lips,
nose, &c. but left an intermediate marginal space, of ap-
preciable breadth, completely surrounding the aperture.
This space is about a line wide ; and the cutis and ner-
vous papillae are unprotected, as sensible and irritable as
a blistered surface abraded of the cuticle. This condi-
tion of the aperture still continues, and constitutes the
principal and almost only cause of pain or distress expe-
rienced from the continuance of the aperture, the intro-
duction of instruments, &c. in the experiments, or the
exudation of fluids from the gastric cavity.

Frequent dressings with soft compresses and bandages
were necessarily applied, to relieve his suffering and retain
his food and drinks, until the winter of 1 823-4. At this
time, a small fold or doubling of the coats of the stomach
appeared forming at the superior margin of the orifice,
slightly protruding, and increasing till it filled the aper-
ture, so as to supersede the necessity for the compress
and bandage for retaining the contents of the stomach.
This valvular formation adapted itself to the accidental
orifice, so as completely to prevent the efflux of the gas-
tric contents when the stomach was fu'l, but was easily
depressed with the finger.

CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN,

'' I'he annexed wood-cut represents the ordinary appear-
ance which the wound then presented, the aperture being

filled with the valve. A A A A indicate the circumference
and edge of the aperture, within which the valve is seen.
B shews the attachment of the latter to the upper part of
the aperture. C, the nipple. D, the anterior portion of
the breast. E, the scar where the opening was made
with the scalpel, and the cartilages taken out. FFFF,
cicatrix of the original wound around the aperture.

In the spring of 1824 he had perfectly recovered his
natural health and strength; the aperture remained;

18 CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN.

and the surrounding wound was firmly cicatrized to its
edges.

In the month of May 1 825, 1 commenced my first se-
ries of gastric experiments with him, at Fort Mackinac?
Michigan Territory. In the month of June following, I
was ordered to Fort Niagara, N. Y. where, taking the
man with me, I continued my experiments until August.
Part of these experiments were published in 1826, in the
29th number of the Philadelphia " Medical Recorder,"
conducted by Doctor Samuel Calhoun. About this time
(August 1825), I took St Martin with me to Burlington,
Vermont, and from thence to Plattsburgh, New York.
From the latter place he returned to Canada, his native
place, without obtaining my consent.

Being unable to ascertain the place of his resort, I gave
him up as a lost subject for physiological experiments,
and returned to my post at the west again. I did not,
however, remit my efforts to obtain information of his
place of residence and condition.

He remained in Canada four years, during which pe-
riod he married, and became the father of two children ;
worked hard to support his family ; and enjoyed robust
health and strength. In 1825, as he has informed me,
he engaged with the Hudson Bay Fur Company, as a
voyageur to the Indian country. He went out in 1827,
and returned in 1828 ; and subsequently laboured hard
to support his family until 1829.

Accidentally learning about this time where he was,
and that he enjoyed perfect health, I made arrangements

CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN.

with the agents of the American Fur Company, who an-
nually visit Canada for the purpose of procuring voyageurs,
to find and engage him for my service, if practicable.
After considerable difficulty, and at great expense to me,
they succeeded hi engaging him, and transported him
from Lower Canada, with his wife and two children, to
me, at Fort Crawford, Prairie du Chien, Upper Missis-
sippi, a distance of nearly two thousand miles, in August
1829. His stomach and side were in a similar condition
as when he left me in 1825. The aperture was open,
and his health good.

The appearance which is presented when the valve
was pushed back is shewn in the above figure.

AAA, are the edges of the aperture. B indicates the
cavity of the stomach as seen when the valve is depressed.
C, the valve itself. EEE, the cicatrix of the original
wound. F, the nipple.

20 CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN.

He now entered my service, and I commenced another
series of experiments on the stomach and' gastric fluids?
and continued them, interruptedly, until March 1831*;>
During this time, in the intervals of experimenting, he
performed all the duties of a common servant, chopping
wood, carrying burthens, &c, with little or no suffering or
inconvenience from his wound. He laboured constantly,
became the father of more children, and enjoyed as good
health and as much vigour as men in general. He sub-
sisted on crude food, in abundant quantities, except when
on prescribed diet, for particular experimental purposes,
and under special observance.

In the spring of 1831, circumstances made it expedient
for him to return with his fgimily from Prairie du Chien
to Lower Canada again. I relinquished his engagements
to me for the time, on a promise that he would return
when required, and gave him an outfit for himself, wife,
and children. They started in an open canoe, via the
Mississippi, passing by St Louis, Mo. ; ascended the
Ohio river ; then crossed the state of Ohio, to the Lakes ;
and descended the Erie, Ontario, and the River St Law-
rence, to Montreal, where they arrived in June. He re-
mained in Canada with his family until October 1832, in
good health, and at hard labour. He was in the midst
of the cholera epidemic, at the time it prevailed, and
passed through Canada, and withstood its ravages with
impunity, while hundreds around him fell sacrifices to its
fatal influence. •

In November 1832, he again engaged himself to me

■CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN. 21

for twelve months, for the express purpose of submitting
to another series of experiments. He joined me at
Plattsburgh, N. Y., and travelled with me to the city of
Washington, where, with the facilities afforded by ihe
head of the Medical Department, the experiments were
continued upon him from November 1832, to March 1833.
During the whole of these periods, from the spring of
1824 to the present time, he has enjoyed general good
_ health, and perhaps suffered much less predisposition to
disease than is common to men of his age and circum-
stances in life. He has been active, athletic and vigo-
rous ; exercising, eating and drinJcing like other healthy
and active people. For the last four months, he has been
unusually plethoric and robust, though constantly sub-
jected to a continued series of experiments on the inte-
rior of the stomach ; allowing to be introduced or taken
out at the aperture different kinds of food, drinks, elastic
catheters, thermometer tubes, gastric juice, chyme, &c.
almost daily, and sometimes hourly.

Such have been this man's condition and circumstan-
ces for several years past ; and he now enjoys the most
perfect health and constitutipnal soundness, with every
function of the system in full force and vigour. , ,

Mode of extracting the Gastric Juice. — The usual me-
thod of extracting the gastric juice, for experiment, is
by placing the subject on his right side, depressing the
. valve within the aperture, introducing a gum-elastic tube,
of the size of a large quill, five or six inches into the sto-

22 CASE OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN.

mach, and then turning him on the left side, until the
orifice becomes dependent. In health, and when free
from food, the stomach is usually entirely empty, and
contracted upon itself. On introducing the tube, the
fluid soon begins to flow, first hydrops, then in an inter-
rupted, and sometimes in a short continuous stream.
Moving the tube about, up and down, or backwards and
forwards, increases the discharge. The quantity of fluid
ordinarily obtained is from four drachms to one and a half
or two ounces, varying with the circumstances and con-
dition of the stomach. Its extraction is generally attend-
ed by that peculiar sensation at the pit of the stomach,
termed sinking, with some degree of faintness, which ren-
ders it necessary to stop the operation. The usual time
of extracting the juice is early in the morning, before he
has eaten, when the stomach is empty and clean.

On laying him horizontally on his back, pressing the
hand upon the hepatic region, agitating a little, and at the
same time turning him to the left side, bright yellow bile
appears to flow freely through the pylorus, and passes out
through the tube. Sometimes it is found mixed with the
gastric juice, without this operation. This is, however, sel-
dom the case, unless it has been excited by some other
cause.

The chymous fluids are easily taken out by depressing
the valve within the aperture, laying the hand over the
lower part of the stomach, shaking a little, and pressing
upwards. In this manner, any quantity necessary for ex-
amination and experiment can be obtained.

CASE-OF ALEXIS ST MARTIN. 23

Valve. — The valve mentioned above, is formed by a
slightly inverted portion of the inner coats of the stomach
fitted exactly to fill the aperture. Its principal and most
external attachment is at the upper and posterior edge of
the opening. Its free portion hangs pendulous, and fills the
aperture when the stomach is full, and plays up and down,
simultaneously with the respiratory muscles, when empty.

On pressing down the valve when the stomach is full,
the contents flow out copiously. When the stomach is
nearly empty, and quiescent, the interior of the cavity
may be examined to the depth of five or six inches, if
kept distended by artificial means ; and the food and
drinks may be seen entering it, if swallowed at this time,
through the ring of the oesophagus. The perforation
through the walls of the stomach is about three inches
to the left of the cardia, near the left superior ter-
mination of the great curvature. When entirely empty,
the stomach contracts upon itself, and sometimes forces
the valve through the orifice, together with an additional
portion of the mucous membrane, which becomes com-
pletely inverted, and forms a tumour as large as a hen's
egg. After lying on the left side, and sleeping a few-
hours, a still larger portion protrudes, and spreads out
over the external integuments, five or six inches in cir-
cumference, fairly exhibiting the natural rugge, villous
membrane, and mucous coat, lining the gastric cavity.
This appearance is almost invariably exhibited in the
morning, before rising from his bed.

( 24 )

CHAPTER II.

OF ALIMENT.

Man an omnivorous animal — Nature of animal food — The ulti-
mate principles of aliment the same, whether deriA^ed from
animals or vegetables — The action of the stomach on food
always the same — The quantity of nutriment required varies
according to circumstances — The quality is also important —
Variety is required — Table of digestibility of various sub-
stances— Animal more quickly digested than vegetable food
— Minuteness of division influential on digestion — Fish easily
digested — Condiments not essential — Drink necessary — Effect
of Wine — Quantity more influential than quality.

Man is said to be an omnivorous animal, destined to
procure his food from both the animal and vegetable
kingdoms. The inhabitant of temperate climates is
unquestionably so. It would be interesting to ascertain
by experiment whether he would be sustained by habit
from infancy, on the productions of either of these grand
divisions. If the result should be favourable to the de-
monstration of this proposition, though it might stiU more
unsettle the opinions of physiologists, it would be an evi-
dence of this truth, that man is a creature of habit and
circumstance, carrying about him the effects of primeval
disobedience, destined not only to earn his food by his
own exertions, but to partake of such as the climate in
which he resides may supply to him. Approximating to
this are the habits of people of different quarters of the
world — those of Asia, who live almost exclusively on ve-

NATURE OF ANIMAL FOOD. 25

getable and farinaceous food, and those of the northern
regions of America, who derive their food principally from
fish, oil, and flesh.

.Other substances have sometimes been used as aliment:
and Professor Dunglison mentions, on the authority of
Humboldt, that the Ottomaques, a tribe of Indians of
South America, are in the habit of using " an unctuous
earth, or a species of pipe-clay,'" as an article of diet.
Whether nutriment can be supplied by such articles
alone, is extremely problematical. In all countries,
some persons are found who are in the constant habit of
eating large quantities of clay, chalk, slate, stone, &c.
Such practices may be regarded as evidence, if not of a
diseased, at least of a vitiated appetite ; though it often
happens that alkaline and absorbent substances are used
medicinally with advantage, particularly where much aci-
dity of the stomach prevails.

As it respects the inhabitants of Europe and their
American descendants, as well as most other natives of
temperate climates, it is well known that they derive
their nourishment from both the animal and vegetable
kingdoms.

The facility of digestion of different articles of -diet,
and the quantity of nutrient principles which they con-
tain, have been subjects of some discrepance of opinion
among physiologists. They have, however, settled down
into a belief, probably as near the truth as practicable,
that animal food is more readily assimilated, and affords

26 NATURE OF ANIMAL FOOD.

more nutrition in a given quantity, than vegetable or
farinaceous food.

Animal food has been divided into fibrine, gelatine,
and albumen, and a comparison drawn between their de-
grees of digestibility. But it will occur to every one at
all acquainted with the subject, that almost every portion
of animal food contains an admixture of all these princi-
ples, and it is consequently very difficult to come to a
correct conclusion. The truth is, there can be no gene-
ral rule on this subject. The facility of digestion is mo-
dified by so many circumstances, as health, disease, idio-
syncracy, habit, and preparation of food, that a rule which
would apply in one case would be incorrect in another.
It depends more upon other distinctions than upon those
relating to the chemical composition of the food. Albu-
men (one of these chemical divisions), if taken into the
stomach, either very slightly or not at all coagulated, is
perhaps as rapidly chymified as any article of diet we
possess. If perfectly formed into hard coagulse, by heat or
otherTvise, and swallowed in large solid pieces, it experi-
ences a very protracted digestion. The reason is obvi-
ous. In the first case, the albumen becomes finely coa-
gulated, and divided in the stomach ; in the second, it is
less susceptible of subdivision from its hardness. Fibrine
and gelatine are affected in the same way. If tender and
finely divided, they are disposed of readily ; if in large
and solid masses, digestion is proportionably retarded.
Minuteness of division and tenderness of fibre are the two
grand essentials for speedy and easy digestion. By re-

- ULTIMATE PRINCIPLES OF NUTRIMENT. 27

ferring to my experiments, it will be seen that those ar-
ticles of diet which were submitted to the action of the
gastric juice, either artificially when out of the stomach,
or in the stomach by natural process, were dissolved in
proportion to the fineness of their division or their soli-
dity— the one rapidly, and the other slowly.

The digestion of animal and vegetable diet requires
the same process, though one may afford a larger pro-
portion of the nutrient principle than the other. Gene-
rally speaking, vegetable aliment requires more time, and
probably greater powers of the gastric organs, than ani-
mal. Its digestibility is, however, dependent upon
the same laws as those that govern the solution of
animal food ; and it is facilitated by division and tender-
ness.

The ultimate principles of nutriment are probably al-
ways the same, whether obtained fi'om animal or vege-
table diet. It was said by Hippocrates, that " there are
many kinds of aliments, but that there is at the same
time but one aliment." This opinion has been contested
by most modern physiologists ; but I see no reason for
scepticism on this subject. Some imperfect experiments
which I instituted on the operations of the hepatic and
pancreatic juices, and which will be found in a subse-
quent part of this volume, tend to throw some light on
the subject. Chyme was submitted to the action of these
fluids, and they invariably produced similai' effects A
fluid was separated, varying slightly in colour, but of the
same apparent consistence and identity ; and was increased

28 ACTION OF THE STOMACH ON FOOD*

or lessened in proportion to the quality of the food of
which the chyme was formed. Whether this fluid was
or was not imperfectly formed chyle, is a matter of opi-
nion only. The circulating fluids of the system are al-
ways nearly the same in health, and that which goes to
supply and replenish them, should consequently possess
the same invariable properties. Chyle, after its separa-
tion in the intestines, is probably further changed and
perfected by the action of the lacteal absorbents and
sanguiferous vessels, before it is completely assimilated.
Chyme, from which this nutrient principle is obtained, is
a compound of gastric juice and aliment. It may be re-
garded as a gastrite of whatever it is combined with, va-
ried according to the kind of aliment used. The perfect
chyle, or assimilated nutriment, probably contains the
elements of all the secretions of the system ; such as
bone, muscle, mucus, saliva, gastric juice, &c. &c., which
are separated by the action of the glands, the sanguife-
rous and other vessels of the system.

The action of the stomach, and its fluids, on aliment,
is believed to be sui generis, invariably the same, in
health, on all kinds. And yet it is contended by Paris,
and obliquely hinted by some other modern physiologists,
that as animal food " possesses a composition analogous
to that of the structure it is designed to supply," it " re-
quires little more than division and depuration," &c. It
is singular that sensible men, and men of science, can
allow themselves to be led to such erroneous conclusions,
and w^ill not perceive a simplicity and uniformity in the

ACTION OF THE STOMACH ON FOOD. 2Q

process of digestion, as well as in all the other operations
of nature. That the active solvent of the stomach should
produce the same effect on all alimentary substances, is
no more wonderful than that caloric should liquefy all
kinds of matter. In both cases it only requires a longer
or shorter continuance, or more or less concentrated ac-
tion, of the agent, to produce the same effect. If animal
food is only to be divided and depurated, blood, which is
an elementary part of the body, would require no change
in the stomach. But it is perfectly idle to talk in this
way. The most innutritious vegetable and the most ani-
malized substance, require the same action of the gastric
solvent, as the reader will find amply demonstrated in the
following experiments. It is true that one may be dis-
posed of with ease, and the other with difficulty ; but this
is not always, nor indeed often, in a direct ratio to their
respective proportions of nutrient principles. An innu-
tritious diet may be disposed of as easily, the circum-
stances of divisibility and tenderness of fibre being equal,
as a nutritious one. I do not believe that the one re-
quires a more " complicated series of decompositions and
recompositions " than the other ; nor that the chyle from
animal aliment is more highly " animalized" than that
from the poorest diet we possess. The " digestive fever,"
or the excitement that follows the digestion of animal
food, is the effect, not of a different kind of stimulus, but
of the introduction of a greater quantity of chyle, or the
nutritive principle of food, into the circulating fluids. It
excites the system precisely in the same manner as ardent

38 QUALITY OF NUTRIMENT REQUIRED.

spirits, or other stimulus does, with the exception, that
its effects are more permanent.

The quantity of nutriment required by different indi-
viduals, is as various as the individuals who partake of it.
As a general rule, it may be said that persons who do not
exercise much, require less nutritious diet than those
who are in the habit of constant labour. What would be
a natural supply in one, would be excess in another.
With labouring persons, much of the excess is carried off
by perspiration ; and probably a great deal of nervous
energy is wasted by laborious occupations, which re-
quires to be replenished by the nutrient principles of
aliment. This is a subject, however, on which we can
only offer conjecture ; for it is difficult to argue on a point
of which we know so little. Young people who are grow-
ing, require more nutriment in proportion to their size,
than those who have arrived at adult age.*

The quality of nutriment is a matter of considerable
importance in dietetic regulations. Bulk is, perhaps,

* The rapidity and extent of waste occurring under certain cir-
cumstances, have been ably exhibited by Dr Southwood Smith in
the second volume of his Philosophy of Health (p. 393). Dr Smith
weighed eight of the men employed in feeding the fires of the
Phoenix Gas Company in London, before they began and after
finishing their work, which latter lasted one hour. The tempera-
ture of the atmosphere at the time was 60*', and the barometer
stood at 29.25. The loss sustained during that short time amount-
ed to 2 lb. 8 oz. in the lowest of the eight, and to no less than
41b. 3oz. in the highest. The general result was, that the men
employed in that work lost from 2 lb. to 5 lb weight twice a-day by
perspiration alone. In extreme cases like these, the necessity of
a proportionately large supply is self-evident; without it the
men would perish in a week. — Editor.

KINDS OF NUTRIMENT. 31

nearly as necessary to the articles of diet as the nutrient
principle. They should be so managed that one shall
be in proportion to the other. Too highly nutritive diet
is probably as fatal to the prolongation of life and health,
as that which contains an insufficient quantity of nutri-
ment. It has been ascertained that carnivorous animals
will not live on highly concentrated food alone. Dogs
fed on oil or sugar, which are both converted by the
digestive organs almost entirely into chyle, are found to
become diseased, and die in a few weeks. The inference
drawn by Paris,* that it merely " proves that an animal
cannot be supported on highly concentrated aliment
alone," no doubt, is a correct one ; though opposed to
the opinion of Magendie, the author of the experiments,
who infers that death proceeds from the want of azote in
these articles of diet, and that life cannot be supported on
non-azotized aliment.j

* Paris on Diet, p. 72.

•j- It seems to me that animals die when confined exclusively to
the use of concentrated food, not from the want of azote, but sim-
ply from such food being out of harmony with their organic struc-
ture. The Creator has constituted every animal with relation to
its natural or proper food and no other, and if that be denied it, it
must of necessity suffer. The cow, for example, has four stomachs
specially adapted for digesting herbage, out of which it extracts
its nutriment ; but supposing that, by a chemical process, we were
able to extract the nutritive essence from the grass or hay, and
were to give it in a concentrated state to the cow, can any reason-
able being even fancy that the cow would thrive as well as when
it had the pleasure of cropping the grass for itself, and employing
its own stomachs to effect the preparation ? The thing is absurd,
and we may be equally certain, that if the stomach and intestines
of any animal are constructed by the Creator for the reception of

32 DIGESTIBILITY OF DIFFERENT

The following articles of the materia alimentaria have,
in the course of these experiments, been submitted to the
action of the stomach and the gastric fluids. I have attempt-
ed, in this table, to approximate towards a comparison of
the digestibility of the several articles there mentioned.
Precision, as to minutes, has not been attended to. When
digestion has been accomplished two or three minutes
either before or after a certain number of hours and quar-
ters, I have set down the quarter to which it approached
the nearest.

In a subsequent part of this volume, a more particular
and minute detail will be found, both of natural and arti-
ficial digestion.

a mixed and bulky diet, that animal cannot thrive on pure and
concentrated food. Magendie evidently overshoots the mark when
he seeks for the explanation in the supposed absence of a single
chemical principle. — Editor^

KINDS OF ALIMENT.

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36 DIGESTIBILITY OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES.

This table is far from being complete. The experi-
ments from which it has been formed, were made princi-
pally with the view of demonstrating other important
principles connected with the subject of digestion. The
only way of ensuring minuteness and accuracy as to the
comparative digestibility of different kinds of diet, would
be to try the effect of the gastric juice, in a series of ex-
periments, first on one article of diet, and then on an-
other, repeating and adapting them to meet all the va-
rious conditions of the stomach, and the vicissitudes and
irregularities of the system, until the whole range should
be completed — a Herculean task, which it would take
years to accomplish. In the above table, the time is
counted from the reception of the meal of various arti-
cles to the chymification of the v^hole : hence the con-
clusions are frequently indefinite, some of the articles
being sooner disposed of than others. For instance, if a
dinner be eat of venison steak and fat pork, the time of
digestion of the whole quantity would, in all probability,
be twice as long as if venison had been used alone. Oily
substances are digested with great difficulty, and the fat
of all meats is converted into oil in the stomach before it
is digested. Chymification is most readily effected en
solid food, or rather on a soft solid, which is easily divi-
sible into shreds or small particles. Such is particularly
the character of venison, which is ascertained to be one
of the most digestible of substances. The qualities of
looseness of texture and susceptibility of division belong
to most of those wild meats and game which are gene-

VEGETABLES ARE DIGESTED SLOWLY. o/

rally acknowledged to be easy of digestion. Beef and
mutton, of a certain age, possess similar qualities. '"'

The opinion advanced by Paris, | that the flesh of wild
animals is more dense than the domesticated, does not
correspond with the experience of those who are well ac-
quainted with the former. Although, on making a sec-
tion of wild flesh, such appearance may be indicated, yet
the fibres are found to be more easily separated by mas-
tication, or other force, and are generally tender ; at least,
such is the case with the flesh of those animals that are
considered luxurious by the epicure. Compare, for ex-
ample, the flesh of the wether and the deer, animals
which have a near correspondence in their habits, and the
difference will be very obvious.

The digestibility of most meats is improved by inci-
pient putrefaction, sufficient to render the muscular fibre
slightly tender.

Vegetables are generally slower of digestion than meats
and farinaceous substances, though they sometimes pass
out of the stomach before them, in an undigested state.
Crude vegetables, by some law of the animal economy^

* It is much to be regretted that Dr Beaumont did not make
a series of experiments purposely to ascertain the relative diges-
tibilities of different kinds of food. From not having attended to
any of the precautions requisite to guard against error, the results
above narrated can be regarded as only approximative. The ra-
pidity of digestion, as the author himself shews, varies greatly ac-
cording to the quantity eaten, the amount and nature of the pre-
vious exercise, the interval since the preceding meal, the state of
health and of the weather, and also the state of the mind. But
in scarcely any of the experiments have these conditions been
carefully noted Editor.

+ Paris on Diet, p. 72.

38 INFLUENCE OF MINUTE DIVISION.

not well understood, are allowed, even when the stomach
is in a healthy state, sometimes to pass the pyloric orifice,
while other food is retained there to receive the solvent
action of the gastric juice. This may depend upon their
comparative indigestibility ; for it is well known that ca-
thartic medicines, various fruits, seeds, &c. which operate
as laxatives, are not digested ; are incapable of being re-
tained in the stomach ; and pass rapidly through the in-
testinal tube. When such articles are in excess, they
produce considerable derangement, and sometimes fatal
consequences.

Vegetable, like animal substances, are more capable
of digestion in proportion to the minuteness of their di-
vision, as I have before remarked, provided they are of
a soft solid ; and I cannot, therefore, concur in the opinion
expressed by Paris, '^ that potatoes are better when only
boiled so as to be rendered tender, and have their shape
preserved, than when boiled to a " dry, insipid pow-
der." They may be more palatable, and contain more
nutriment ; but they are not so easily affected by the
gastric solvent. The difference is quite obvious on sub-
mitting parcels of this vegetable, in different] states of
preparation, to the operation of the gastric juice, either
in the stomach or out of it. Boiled, or otherwise cooked
to dryness, so as to be easily mashed, potatoes very rea-
dily become reduced to a chymous state, when submitted
to the action of the gastric juice. When differently pre-
pared, and only boiled so as to be rendered barely soft,
moist and tenacious, with the shape preserved, entire pieces
* Paris on Diet, p. 75.

SOLID FOOD DIGESTS QUICKER THAN FLUID. 39

remain long undissolved in the stomach, and very slowly
yield to the action of the gastric juice in vials on the
bath. Pieces of raw potato, when submitted to the
operation of this fluid, in the same manner, almost en-
tirely resist its action. Many hours elapse before the
slightest appearance of digestion is observable, and this
only upon the surface, where the external laminae become
a little softened, mucilaginous, and slightly farinaceous.
Every physician, who has had much practice in the dis-
eases of children, knows that partially boiled potatoes,
when not sufficiently masticated (which is always the case
wdth children), are frequently a source of colics and bowel
complaints, and that large pieces of this vegetable pass
the bowels untouched by digestion.

These remarks will apply, also, to most other vegetable
aliment.

The varieties of fish, which are generally used by the
citizens of this country, may be regarded as easily sus-
ceptible of digestion. The lobster, crab, and some others
of the testaceous tribe, are, perhaps, exceptions.

Solid food is sooner disposed of by the stomach than
fluid, and its nutritive principles are sooner carried into
the circulation. It has been observed, however, that the
exhaustion from abstinence is quicker removed by liquid
than solid aliment. This is undoubtedly true ; and it
may be accounted for on the ground of a general sym-
pathy existing between the stomach and all the other
parts of the body.* It is only necessary, in proof of this

* The proper explanation of this fact seems to be the rapid
absorption into the system of a part of the liquid aliment, and the

40 DRINKS ESSENTIAL.

fact, to appeal to the experience of almost every physi-
cian. The violent spasms, contortions, &c. affecting dif-
ferent and remote parts of the system, that sometimes
supervene on the introduction of crude or indigestible
food into the stomach, are pretty clear indications of the
powerful sympathy that exists between it and other or-
gans or apparatuses.

Condiments, particularly those of the spicy kind, are
non-essential to the process of digestion, in a healthy state
of the system. They afford no nutrition. Though they
may assist the action of a debilitated stomach for a time,
their continual use never fails to produce an indirect de-
bility of that organ. They affect it as alcohol or other sti-
mulants do — the present relief afforded is at the expense of
future suflPering. Salt and vinegar are exceptions, and
are not obnoxious to this charge, when used in moderation.
They both assist in digestion — vinegar, by rendering mus-
cular fibre more tender — and both together by producing
a fluid having some analogy to the gastric juice.

Drinks are nearly as essential to the animal system as
the more substantial food. Though not subject to diges-
tion, they enter into the circulation, and become import-
ant agents in the ultimate changes that are undergoing
in the tissues of the organism. Simple water is, perhaps,
the only fluid that is called for by the wants of the eco-
nomy. The artificial drinks are probably all more or less

support which it consequently gives almost immediately. Vv^hereas
if the whole of the aliment be solid, it must undergo digestion
before any of it can be absorbed, and this requires much time.
■ The author himself proves that the absorption of the fluid part of
soup begins almost immediately after it is swallowed. — Editor.

DRINKS ESSENTIAL. 41

injurious ; some more so than others ; but none can claim
exemption from the general charge. Even coffee and tea,
the common beverages of all classes of people, have a ten-
dency to debilitate the digestive organs. Let any one
who is in the habit of drinking either of these articles in a
weak decoction, take two or three cups made very strong,
and he will soon be aware of their injurious tendency.
And this is only an addition to the strength of the narcotic
he is in the constant habit of using.* The whole class of
alcoholic liquors, whether simply fermented or distilled,
may be considered as narcotics^ producing very little diffe-
rence in their ultimate effects on the system.

The injury which a constant use of wine is known to
produce on some stomachs, has been sometimes attributed
to the small quantity of tartaric acid which it contains.
But it is not the cream of tartar that renders wine so de-
leterious to many stomachs. It is the acidity produced
by the acetous fermentation of the saccharine matter con-
tained in the wine, aided, perhaps, by the alcohol which
is in a state of combination with it. Beer has the same
effect on the same idiosyncracies, or diseased states of the
stomach. Besides, both of these fluids are in a partial
stage of acetous fermentation, which is consummated by
the increase of temperature in the stomach.

* Agreeing with the author on the general opinions expressed
in the text, I must diifer from him as to the soundness of the ar-
gument founded on strong tea and coffee. His statement merely
proves that too much is badx Beef and mutton are in themselves
very good, but too much of them is hurtful. Are we therefore to
proscribe them ? Weak tea may be good although " very strong'''
tea is pernicious. I concur, however, in thinking, that tea, cof-
fee, and stimulants are grossly abused. — Editor.

42 . WHAT IS THE BEST KIND OF DIET.

It would be a task of great difficulty to designate the
exact kind of diet that would, if generally adopted, be the
most conducive to health and longevity. A considerable
variety seems to be necessary to man, in a state of civili-
zation. This want of variety is induced by long habit,
which it would probably be unsafe to break through. Whe-
ther man was originally carnivorous or granivorous, is a
question which we cannot solve, and perhaps it it not
worth the attempt ; at present he is both, and with his
present mode of existence we have to do.*

The quantity of aliment is probably of more importance
than the quality^ to ensure health. The system requires
much less than is generally supplied to it. The stomach
disposes of a definite quantity. If more be taken than the
actual wants of the economy require, the residue remains
in the stomach, and becomes a source of irritation, and
produces a consequent aberration of function, or passes
into the lower bowels in an undigested state, and ex-
tends to them its deleterious influence. Dyspepsia is
oftener the effect of over-eating and over-drinking than
of any other cause.

* It would be a mere waste of time to lay down any exact diet
for general adoption. Men differ so much from each other, and
in their employments, ages, and modes of life, and the same indi-
vidual differs so much at different times even from himself, as to
render an invariable rule a sheer absurdity..^ — Editor.

( 43 )

CHAPTER III.

OF HUNGER AND THIRST.

Hunger— Its exciting cause— Different theories of— The Author's
theory of hunger— Thirst and its causes— Objections to the
Author's theory of hunger.

Hunger is a painful sensation, referred to the region
of the stomach. It is a kind provision of nature, designed
to remind man, and other animated beings, of the neces-
sity of replenishing the wastes of the system, as well as
contributing to its growth. Much inquiry has been made
on this subject, and many theories have been given to
account for the phenomenon. It has been supposed by
some, that the friction of the internal coats of the empty
stomach was the cause of the sensation. This opinion is
liable to several objections : — 1st, A healthy stomach di-
gests its contents in from one to three or four hours, and
hunger is not usually experienced until some time after
the latter period. If hunger be the effect of the friction
of the p^rietes of the stomach, it ought to be experienced
the moment that that organ has disposed of its contents.
2d, In nausea and vomiting, the stomach is brought into
a situation, according to this theory, to experience the
sensation of hunger ; and yet we know how opposed it is
to receiving any thing like food. 3d, In gastritis and
fevers the sensation hardly ever occurs, though very lit-

44 EXCITING CAUSE OF HUNGER.

tie food shall have occupied the stomach for a long time
— perhaps not for weeks. This organ, under such cir-
cumstances, is generally empty and irritable, yet the pe-
culiar sensation in question hardly ever supervenes. Be-
sides, hunger sometimes occurs when the stomach is par-
tially or wholly filled. The potation of spirits or brandy
and water, and some other indigestible substances of a
liquid character, does not remove the sensation, although
by this means the parietes of the stomach are as com-
pletely separated as by food.

It has also been suggested that the sensation of hun-
ger is produced by the irritation of a quantity of gastric
juice in the stomach, which, by its stimulus, excites the
feeling. The principal objection to this doctrine is based
upon the fact, that the stomach contains no gastric juice,
or, at any rate, but a very small quantity, in its empty
state, or when aliment or other irritant is not present.
Besides, if it were true that it contained a quantity of the
fluid, such fluid does not possess the power of producing
any thing like irritation or inflammation of its coats. It
is as innoxious to the stomach as the blandest substance
in nature. It exerts its influence on free aliment, but
not on the living fibre.

By referring the sensation to " an energetic state of
the gastric nerves, occasioned by an interval of inactivity,
during which the vital powers may be supposed to accu-
mulate," * it appears to me that we are venturing upon
unexplored grounds, of which we know but little. We
are not accustomed to call those painful nervous sensa-

* Paris on Diet, p. 55.

EXCITING CAUSE OF HUNGER. . 45

tions to which the system is sometimes subject, states of
high nervous energy. Are they not rather states of ner-
vous debility ? or, at any rate, irregular and unhealthy
motions ?

That the introduction of narcotics into the stomach
should destroy the appetite, proves only that they have
the same effect oh that organ as they have on other parts
of the body ; they paralyse the nerves, and render them
incapable of being the media of communication to their
common centre.

Many other causes have been assigned for this sensa-
tion, equally wide, probably of the true one. It has been
attributed to the "foresight of the vital principle," a
phrase that means any thing, every thing, or nothing, ac-
cording to the construction which each one may put upon
it. Such explanations conduce nothing to the promotion
of science. They are mere sounds and words, which in-
geniously convey a tacit acknowledgment of their author's
ignorance.

Again, the mechanical action of the liver upon the
diaphragm, has been accused of producing the sensation
of hunger. Some proof, more than mere assertion, is
necessary to convince honest inquirers that so remote a
cause should produce such effects on the stomach, the
immediate seat of the feeling. Of the same nature, is
the opinion of the fatigue of the contracted fibres of the
stomach, or of compression of the nerves of that organ,
&c. &c.

Magendie, convinced that all the theories on this sub-
ject were unsatisfactory, comes to the following compre-

46 THEORY OF HUNGER.

hensive conclusion, that " Hunger is produced like all
other internal sensations, by the action of the nervous
system, and it has no other seat than in this system it-
self, and no other causes than the general laws of organi-
zation."* I cannot perceive that such explanations bring
the mind to any satisfactory understanding of the sub-
ject. In such broad propositions, it is difficult to ascer-
tain the exact meaning. If the design is to convey the
impression that hunger has no " local habitation ;" that
it is an impression, affecting all the nerves of the system
inr the same manner ; then the sensation would be as
likely to be referred to one organ as another. It is true,
that without nervous communication there would be no
sensation at all. This applies as well to other parts as to
the stomach. The nerves are the media of communica-
tion from the sensible parts to the centre of perceptions.
They warn the encephalon not only of the injuries, but
of the wants of the tissues. We are accustomed to refer
local sensations and irritations to the parts apparently
affected — desire for urination and defecation, to the blad-
der and rectum ; for liquids, to dryness of the mouth and
fauces : and we account, in like manner, for other physi-
ological and pathological sensations. When we can ar-
rive at the exact interpretation of an author, who says
that hunger has " no other causes than the general laws
of organization," it will then be time to give reasons for
an assent to or dissent from the proposition.

This subject is, unquestionably, involved in considera-
ble doubt and obscurity, and will not, it is to be appre-
* Summary of Physiology, p. 1 %^.

THE author's theory OF HUNGER. 47

hended, admit of a very speedy elucidation. The Author
of Nature is perfect in all His works ; and although we
may not understand all the operations of His hands, we
are compelled to acknowledge their wisdom, propriety,
and beauty. Man would be miserable and wretched in-
deed, if he depended solely on his own discretion and
judgment to decide upon the quantity and quality of ali-
ment necessary to supply the wastes, and administer to
the growth, of the system. This paucity of judgment
and discretion is, however, more than compensated by an
irresistible sensation, which indicates the proper time for
the reception of food. The immediate cause of this sen-
sation, as we have seen, has not as yet received a very
satisfactory explanation, and perhaps will not admit of
one. But, although confessedly obscure, we are not
denied the privilege of patient investigation, and perse-
vering search after truth. Knowledge is progressive, as
well in this as every other science ; and every new dis-
covery, and every rational hypothesis, are additions to
the general stock. Persuaded of the truth of these ge-
neral propositions, and anxious mainly to elicit investiga-
tion on the subject, I submit the following Theory of
Hunger, believing it to be as reasonable, to say the least,
as any that has been propagated.

My impression is, that the sensation of hunger is pro-
duced by a distention of the gastric vessels, or that ap-
paratus, whether vascular or glandular, which secretes
the gastric juice ; and is believed to be the effect of re-
pletion by this fluid.

One reason, among others, for this belief, is the estab-

48 THEORY OF HUiNGER.

lished fact, that the internal sensations referred to dif-
ferent organs, as has been previously alluded to, are
caused by some modified action or condition of the parts
in the tissues of the organ itself. The modification in
the parts to which the sense of hunger is invariably re-
ferred, I conceive to be a distention, by the gastric juice,
of a particular set of vessels or glands, constituting in
part the erectile tissue of the villous coat of the stomach.
The sensation varies according to the different degrees
or states of distention, fi-om the simplest desire to the
most painful sense of hunger ; and is allayed or increased
in proportion to the application, or refusal, of alimentary
stimulus to the excretory vessels. The greater the dis-_
tention of the vessels, the more acute will be the pain :
hence the difference between a short and protracted fast.
Appetite and hunger belong to the same class of sensa-
tions ; they differ only in degree. In this they are like
all other sensations. A little increased circulation in the
vessels of the brain produces peculiarly vivid, but not
absolutely unpleasant feelings, and gives force and ener-
gy to the mental volitions : carried further, it produces
most painful sensations. It is unnecessary to cite fur-
ther examples. Indeed, it does not need arguments to
prove what is the subject of every day's observation. It
is well known that the pain from acute inflammation is
produced by distention of the blood-vessels. Let any
one, who is disposed to try the effect of vascular disten-
tion, place a ligature around the finger or arm sufficiently
tight to retard the returning blood, and the truth will be
sufficiently obvious.

THEORY OF HUNGER. 49

It is, therefore, inferred from the pain (and no one, it
is believed, will deny that hunger is a painful sensation,
whatever may be his opinion of appetite)^ that vessels of
some kind are distended ; and it is demonstrated, I think,
in some of the following experiments, that these are the
gastric vessels. On applying aliment to the internal coat
of the stomach, which, in health, is merely lubricated
with mucus, innumerable minute papillae, the orifices,
undoubtedly, of the gastric vessels, immediately throw
out a quantity of the fluid, which mixes with the food.
This effect is too sudden, and the secretion too copious,
to be accounted for on the ordinary principles and laws
of secreting mucous surfaces. The quiescence and re-
lief from l3ie unpleasant sensation which are experienced
as soon as the vessels are emptied, are, I think, additional
proofs of my opinion. It is certain, that at the introduc-
tion of every meal, or on the application of alimentary
stimulus to the internal coat of the stomach, a very large
secretion of a fluid, which has repeatedly been ascertained
to be an alimentary solvent, immediately takes place ;
and that when the stomach is destitute of food or some
other irritating substance, no such secretion can be found
in it. And it is more than probable — it, in fact, almost
amounts to demonstration, that a large quantity of this
fluid must be contained in appropriate vessels, during a
fast, ready to obey the call of aliment. I would not be
understood to say that the whole quantity necessary for
an ordinary meal is eliminated from the blood, previous
to the commencement of alimentation ; but that enough

50 NATURE OF THIRST.

is contained in the gastric vessels to produce the sensa-
tion of pain or hunger.

If it be objected to this theory, that the vessels would
become ruptured, or empty themselves into the cavity of
the stomach, during a long fast, I reply, that this appa-
ratus is probably constituted like many of the other or-
gans of the system, and permits the absorption of its se-
cretions by the lymphatic or other absorbent vessels.
The male semen is constantly being secreted, and depo-
sited in its proper seminal vessels, ready to be ejected
during the venereal orgasm ; and yet how many men live
for years, or perhaps for a whole life, who have no in-
tercourse with the other sex. What becomes of the
semen under these circumstances ? Taken up, unques-
tionably, by the absorbing vessels, as the gastric juice of
the stomach is.

I offer this theory for consideration, persuaded that the
public will allow it such weight as it may have a right to
claim : more than this, I have no wish to ask.

Thirst. — This sensation is felt in the mouth and
fauces. Like hunger, it is a kind provision of Nature,
designed to remind men and animals of the necessity,
not of replenishing the wasting solids of the system, but
of diluting the fluids that are carrying on these processes.
Although Magendie has attempted to put a stop to all
inquiries on this subject, in the remark, that " Thirst is
an internal sensation, an instinctive sentiment ;" " the
result of organization, and does not admit of any expla-
nation ;" I apprehend a remote cause of this sensation

OBJECTIONS TO DR BEAUMONT's THEORY. 51

may be found in the viscidity of the blood, which requires
a liquid to render it more fluid, and more susceptible of
introduction into the capillaries aud secreting surfaces.
The proximate cause may exist in an irritation, a kind
of sub -inflammation of the mucous membranes of the
mouth and fauces, the effect of the viscid state of the
blood, and consequently impervious state of the secretory
vessels of these membranes. The sensation of dryness,
or thirst, is supposed to be the effect of evaporation, the
mouth and throat being constantly exposed to the at-
mosphere. When there is sufficient fluidity of the blood,
the secretion is so much more copious than the evapora-
tion, that a constant moisture is preserved. The sensation
of thirst resides in the tissues ; and it is no more " an in-
stinctive sentiment" than any other sensation of the eco-
nomy. To say that it is the " result of organization,"
gives no explanation, amounts to nothing, and is certainly,
to say the least, a very unsatisfactory way of disposing
of the question.

Note by the Editor.

That the immediate exciting cause of the sensation of
hunger is seated in the stomach, there can be no reason
to doubt ; but the sensation itself unquestionably takes
place in the brain, just as the sensation of hearing does,
although in the latter case the exciting cause is an exter-
nal impulse acting on the auditory nerves. Accordingly,
it has been proved by Brachet that, when the nervous com-
munication between the stomach and brain is cut off, the

52 OBJECTIONS TO DR BEAUMONT's THEORY,

feeling of hunger instantly ceases, even where a moment
before it was ravenously strong.

It is important to observe this analogy of relation be-
tween different parts performing different functions under
one general law, becuase it explains many phenomena,
and facilitates inquiry. The cause which excites hearing
is a certain condition of the auditory nerve, arising out
of its relations to the vibrations of the atmosphere and
to the brain. In like manner, the cause which excites the
feeling of hunger is a certain condition of the stomachic
nerves, arising out of their relation to the state of the gene-
ral system, and to the brain. When the system has lost
much of its substance, either by severe exercise, or by an
unusually long fast, the nerves of the stomach are affected
in such a way as to give rise in the brain to the feeling of
hunger. When, on the contrary, from a sedentary mode
of life, or the shortness of the interval since last meal, there
has been little expenditure of substance, the stomachic
nerves in harmony with that state convey to the brain
the sensation of contentment, and no appetite is felt.
Hence the keen appetite of those who live actively and
in the open air, and the feeble appetite of sedentary per-
sons. The nerves of hearing cannot excite a feeling of
sound unless the atmospherical vibrations impinge upon
them ; and, in like manner, the stomachic nerves cannot
excite a feeling of hunger, unless their activity is stimu-
lated by the corresponding state of the system.

As, however, it is the brain in which the sensations of
both hearing and hunger actually take place, it happens
that if it be excited by disease, in that peculiar way which,

OBJECTIONS TO DR BEAUMONt's THEORY. 53

in health, follows only the reception of the appropriate
external impression made upon the nerve, the same re-
sult will ensue as if the external impression were really
made, viz. — that sounds will be heard and hunger felt,
when neither the ear nor the stomach have undergone
any change naturally calculated to produce them. This,
accordingly, often happens, and we perhaps experience
craving or false hunger quite as often as we hear imaginary
sounds. The same relation explains the sudden disap-
pearance of appetite on the announcement of agitating
news, whether of grief or joy.

Dr Beaumont himself attaches no great weight to his
theory of the sensation of hunger being caused by the
distention of the gastric vessels, and, in truth, it seems
not to be borne out by facts. He thinks that the
rapidity with which gastric juice is poured out on the
introduction of food, is a proof of its previous existence
in the gastric vessels ; but when we remember the equal
rapidity with which saliva flows into the mouth of a hungry
man, when a good roast of meat is placed before him, we
shall be disposed to question the fact, — unless, indeed,
we hold that the saliva was also stored up in its vessels
ready for use. Besides, bad news cannot instantly empty
tlie gastric vessels of their contents, and yet they dispel
appetite most eiFectually. But having already discussed
this subject at some length in another work, I shall not
dwell upon it here, farther than to add, that the same prin-
ciple applies to the explanation of thirst as of hunger.*

• See the Physiology of Digestion, considered with relation to
the Principles of Dietetics, 2d edition, p. 18, et seq.

{ 54 )

CHAPTER IV.

ON SATISFACTION AND SATIETY.

Quantity of food required — Satiety not a proper guide — The first
feeling of satisfaction is the true indication — Gastric juice se-
creted in relation to this indication.

In the present state of civilized society, with the pro-
vocatives of the cuhnary art, and the incentives of high
seasoned food, brandy and wines, the temptations to ex-
cess in the indulgences of the table are rather too strong
to be resisted by poor human nature. It is not less the
duty, however, of the watchmen on the walls to warn the
city of its danger, however it may regard the premoni-
tion. Let them at least clear their own skirts from the
stain of unfaithfulness, whatever may be the result.

There is no subject of dietetic economy about which
people err so much as that which relates to quantity.
The medical profession, too, have been accessory to this
error, in giving directions to dyspeptics to eat until a
sense of satiety is felt. Now, this feeling, so essential to
be rightly understood, never supervenes until the invalid
has eaten too much, if he have an appetite, which seldom
fails him. Those even who are not otherwise, predis-
posed to the complaint, frequently induce a diseased state

PROPER INDICATION OF ENOUGH EATEN. 55

of the digestive organs by too free indulgence of the ap-
petite. Of this fact the medical profession are, gene-
rally, not sufficiently aware. Those who lead sedentary
lives, and whose circumstances will permit of what is
called free living, are peculiarly obnoxious to these com-
plaints. But by paying particular attention to their sen-
sations during the ingestion of their meals, these com-
plaints may be avoided. There appears to be a sense of
perfect intelligence conveyed from the stomach to the
encephalic centre, which, in health, invariably dictates
what quantity of aliment (responding to the sense of hun-
ger, and its due satisfaction) is naturally required for the
purposes of life ; and which, if noticed and properly at-
tended to, would prove the most salutary monitor of
health, and effectual preventive of, and restorative from,
disease. It is not the sense of satiety^ for this is beyond
the point of healthful indulgence, and is Nature's earliest
indication of an abuse and overburthen of her powers to
replenish the system. It occurs immediately previous
to this, and may be known by the pleasurable sensation
<di perfect satisfactio7i, ease and quiescence of body and
mind. It is when the stomach says enough^ and is dis-
tinguished from satiety by the difference of the sensa-
tions— the former feeling enough — the latter, too much.
The first is produced by the timely reception into the
stomach of proper aliment, in exact proportion to the re-
quirements of nature, for the perfect digestion of which,
a definite quantity of gastric juice is furnished by the pro-
per gastric apparatus. But to effect this most agreeable
of all sensations and conditions — the real Elysian satisfac-

56 SATIETY A SIGN OP EXCESS.

tion of the reasonable epicure — timely attention must be
paid to the preliminary processes, such as thorough mas-
tication, and moderate or slow deglutition. These are
indispensable to the due and natural supply of the sto-
mach, at the stated periods of alimentation j for if food
be swallowed too fast, *and pass into the stomach imper-
fectly masticated, too much is received in a short time,
and in too imperfect a state of preparation, to be disposed
of by the gastric juice.

The quantity of gastric juice either contained in its
proper vessels, or in a state of preparation in the circu-
lating fluids, is believed to be in exact proportion to the
proper quantity of aliment required for the due supply of
the system. If a more than ordinary quantity of food be
taken, a part of it will be left undissolved in the stomach,
and produce the usual unpleasant symptoms of indiges-
tion. But if the ingestion of a large quantity be in pro-
portion to the calls of nature, which sometimes happens
after an unusual abstinence, it is probable that more than
the usual supply of gastric juice is furnished ; in which
case the apparent excess is in exact ratio to the require-
ments of the economy ; and never fails to produce a sense
of quiescent gratification, and healthful enjoyment. A
great deal depends upon habit, in this respect. Our wes-
tern Indians, who frequently undergo long abstinences
from food, eat enormous quantities, when they can pro-
cure it, with impunity.*

* If the principle announced in the above paragraph, that th
quantity of gastric juice secreted is always in exact proportion to
the proper quantity of aliment required by the system, could be

SATIETY A SIGN OF EXCESS. ^ 57

Satiety is produced by tendering too much at once for
the wants of the economy ; more than the gastric juice
is able to dispose of at the time ; distending the muscular
fibres beyond that point so admirably fixed, by the inva-
riable and universal laws of the animal system, for agree-
able sensations ; disturbing the peculiarly pleasurable,
undulatory motions of the rugae of the stomach, in their
operations of forming chyme ; and perhaps interrupting,
if not diminishing, the secretion of the gastric juice. The
redundant aliment, incapable of being dissolved, for want
of sufficient gastric juice, remains, and becomes a source
of irritation, and renders imperfect the chymification of
that which would otherwise have been completed. Hence
the sense of weight and disagreeable fulness, attendant
on an unusually hearty meal ; the subsequent derange-
ment of the digestive functions, and consequent acidities
and vitiated contents of the primae vise, from acetic fer-
mentation in the stomach, and imperfect formation of
chyle in the intestines.

clearly demonstrated^ a very important step would be gained in the
science of Dietetics. It would not only afford the strongest bar-
rier against one of the prevailing sins of the age — eating too much
— but would be of incalculable service in the preservation and
cure of indigestion, and its gloomy train of consequences. — Editor.

( 58 )

CHAPTER V.

MASTICATION, INS ALIVATION, AND DEGLUTITION.

Uses of mastication — Nature and use of saliva — Saliva not essen-
tial to digestion — Mastication essential as a means of dividing
food into minute portions — Deglutition ought to be slow, as
the stomach admits only of slow distention.

These are the preliminary steps in the process of di-
gestion. The comparative importance of these processes
has been elevated or depressed, according to the prepon-
derance which each of them may have received from the
opinions of the different physiologists who have made
them subjects of observation. As man and animals are
constituted, they are all absolutely necessary to the diges-
tion of food. But in an abstract point of view, discon-
nected as a means of introducing ingestae into the sto-
mach, I believe I hazard nothing in saying that they may
be considered as perfectly non-essential to chymification.
If the materia alimentaria could be introduced into the
stomach in a finely divided state, the operations of mas-
tication, insalivation and deglutition, would not be ne-
cessary. Aliment is as well digested and assimilated,
and allays the sensation of hunger as perfectly, when in-
troduced directly into the stomach, in a proper state of
division, as when the previous steps have been taken, as
may be seen by some of the following experiments. If

USES OF SALIVA. 59

particular importance is to be attributed to any of these
previous steps, it is certainly due to mastication ; though
an undue importance has of late been given to the ac-
tion of the saliva. Professor Jackson, of Philadelphia,
who has lately published a physiological work on the
" Structure and Functions of the Animal Organism," has
elevated saliva to a rank in the process of digestion, sel-
dom before claimed for it. He considers it the principal
solvent, or macerating agent, of alimentary matter. He
is sustained in this opinion by Montegre and others.
Even Magendie is inclined to favour this belief

It is remarked by Paris (On Diet, p. 37), that the in-
troduction of saliva into the stomach is " obviously essen-
tial to a healthy digestion." That it is generally intro-
duced into the stomach with the food is very obvious ;
the nature of its action is not so clear. In most of the
experiments that follow, artificial digestion was performed
without the admixture of saliva. Chyme formed in this
way, exhibited the same sensible appearances, and was
affected by reagents in the same way, as that which
was formed from food which had been previously mas-
ticated, mixed with the saliva, and swallowed. It would
seem, from two or three of the experiments on artificial
digestion, which were instituted for the purpose of com-
parison, that the mixture of saliva with the gastric juice
rather retarded its solvent action. But I do not wish
to deny the utility of the saliva. It is certainly import-
ant as a preliminary to digestion. Its legitimate and
only use, in my opinion, is to lubricate the food, and
to facilitate the passage of the bolus through the or-

60 SALIVA NOT ESSENTIAL TO DIGESTION.

gans of deglutition. In this point of view, it is essential.
Dry food cannot be swallowed until it receives an admix-
ture of a fluid, whether it be saliva or some other liquid,
is not, I conceive, a matter of much importance. Any
one, disposed to try the experiment, may satisfy himself
of this fact, by attempting to swallow a mouthful of dry
cracker, meal, or magnesia. He will find it impossible to
make the organs of deglutition act till a quantity of fluid is
mixed with it. Water will answer the purpose nearly as
well as saliva, though the mucous properties of this secre-
tion may give it a slight preference.

Pathology is not, in my opinion, much indebted to
Ruysch, who attributed the loss of appetite to the waste
of saliva in a person who was afflicted with a fistula in one
of the salivary ducts ; nor to the opinion advanced by
others, that the constant spitting of maniacal patients, in-
duces loss of appetite. The truth is, that in both cases,
the effects are attributed to the wrong causes. There is
no difficulty in believing that a foul ulcer in the mouth
would be liable to produce nausea and want of appetite ;
nor that maniacal patients are generally, if not always, af-
fected with diseased organs of digestion. I have known
many persons to spit freely and constantly, whose appe-
tites and digestion were perfect. Those who smoke to-
bacco are constantly discharging large quantities of saliva;
and yet I am not aware that dyspepsia is more common
with them than with others.

I entirely dissent firom the opinion advanced by the
author above referred to (Paris), that " insahvation is as
essential as mastication." The use of mastication is to

MASTICATION ESSENTIAL TO DIGESTION* 61

separate the food into small particles, so that the solvent
of the stomach may be applied to a greater extent of
surface. There is no mystery about this. Every body
knows that the smaller the particles of matter that are
submitted to the action of a chemical agent, the more
vigorously the agent will act upon them, and the sooner
they will be dissolved or decomposed.* Mastication is
absolutely necessary to healthy digestion. If aliment, in
large masses, be introduced into the stomach, though the
gastric juice may act upon its surface, chymifi cation will
proceed so slowly, that other changes will be likely to
commence in its substance before it will become com-
pletely dissolved. Besides, the stomach will not retain
undigested masses for a long time, without suffering great
disturbance. It is governed by certain laws with respect
to aliment. After food has been retained for a certain
length of time undigested, say from five to ten hours,
according to the healthy or diseased state of that organ,
or the quantity received into it, it is either rejected by
vomiting, or is permitted to pass into the duodenum and
lower bowels, where its presence almost invariably pro-
duces colic, flatulence, &c. When, however, the sto-
mach is unusually debilitated, food is frequently retained
for twenty- four hours or more, and is sometimes the
cause of most distressing symptoms, producing, particu-
larly in children, convulsions and death. I therefore

* In using the word solvent or solution^ in reference to the gas
trie juice, I wish to be understood to mean a chemical action, ana-
logous to that of the action of mineral acids on the metals ; not
like the solution of sugar or salt in water.

62 DEGLUTITION OUGHT TO BE GRADUAL.

consider mastication as one of the most important pre-
liminary steps in the process of digestion.

With respect to deglutition, I shall make but a few
remarks. It is important for the preservation of health,
that this process should be effected slowly. If food be
swallowed rapidly, more will be generally taken into the
stomach before the sensation of hunger is allayed, than
can be digested with ease. If due attention be paid to
the previous step of thorough mastication, we shall not
be so likely to err in this latter one.

Swallowing very rapidly, produces irregular contrac-
tions of the muscular fibres of the oesophagus and stomach ;
disturbs the vermicular motions of the rugae ; and inter-
rupts the uniform action of the gastric apparatus.

The stomach is not designed to receive more food
than can be duly mixed with the gastric solvent, already
in its proper vessels, or in a state of preparation in the
bloodvessels. Perfect harmony of action must exist
throughout the whole apparatus, or derangement of
healthy action will ensue.

The stomach will not admit of the introduction of food,
even of a liquid kind, through the aperture, at a rapid
rate. If a few spoonfuls of soup, or other liquid diet, be
put in with a spoon or funnel, the rugae gently close
upon it, and gradually diffuse it through the gastric cavity,
entirely excluding more during this action. When a
relaxation takes place, another quantity will be received
in the same manner.

If the valvular portion of the stomach be depressed,
and solid food be introduced, either in entire pieces or

NOTE BY THE EDITOR. 63

finely divided quantities, the same gentle contraction, or
grasping motion, takes place, and continues for fifty or
eighty seconds ; and will not allow of the introduction of
another quantity until the above time has elapsed ; when
the valve may again be depressed, and more food be put
in. Food and drinks will be received through the aper-
ture no faster, even when the stomach is entirely empty,
than they are ordinarily received through the oesophagus.
When the subject of these experiments is so placed
that the cardia can be seen, and he is allowed to swallow
a mouthful of food, the same contraction of the stomach,
and closing upon the bolus, is invariably observed to take
place at the oesophageal ring.

Note hy the Editor.

This gradual admission of food into the stomach, seems
to be in relation with the gradual supply of gastric juice,
necessary for the solution of each portion, and it explains
why at a social dinner, where we eat slowly and with short
intervals of conversation, we are able to consume a larger
quantity and digest it more easily, than when we sit down
alone and eat hurriedly and without interruption. In the
one case, the stomach has time to adapt its capacity and
its gastric secretion to the quantity taken in ; while in
the other, it can do neither.

( 64 )

CHAPTER VI.

OF DIGESTION BY THE GASTRIC JUICE*

Chymification— Agents of. — Spallanzani's theory of Digestion—*
Common opinions regarding the gastric juice — Gastric juice
has a solvent power — Analysis of— Composition of— -Its^action
is purely chemical — Gastric juice described-— Its quantity pro-
portioned to wants of the system — Its secretion and action
begin on the contact of food-^Evils of frequent eating ex*
plained — Gastric juice supplied to all the food at once when
the latter is not in excess — Old and new food mix — Effects of
exercise on digestion — Bile not essential to chymification—
Chyme, its nature and progress — Montegre's theory of diges-.
tion — Smith's and Jackson's theories—General remarks.

Chymification is effected in the stomach. It is the
first stage, proper, of the conversion of aUment into
blood ; though in the ordinary course of proceeding, af^
animals are constituted, some previous steps are neces-
sary. After the aliment has been received into the
stomach, it is subjected to certain evolutions, or motions,
propagated by the muscular fibres of that organ ; and is
acted upon through the agency of some principle, wliich
changes it from a heterogeneous mixture of the various
kinds of diet, submitted to its action, to an uniform ho-
mogeneous semi-fluid, possessing properties distinct from
the elements of which it is composed. The length of
time consumed in the operation is various. It depends
upon the quantity or quality of the ingestse, the healthy

AGENTS OF CHYMIFICATION. 65

or diseased state of the stomach, &c. In the various ex-
periments which I have made, the medium time may be
calculated at about three and a half hours.

It has been suggested by many physiologists, and posi-
tively asserted by some, that there is considerable in-
crease of the temperature of the stomach during the di-
gestion of a meal. But from the result of a great num-
ber of experiments and examinations, made with a view
of ascertaining the truth of this opinion, in the empty
and full state of the organ, and during different stages of
chymification, I am convinced that there is no alteration
of temperature, unless some other circumstance should
produce it. Active exercise always elevates the tempe-
rature of the stomach, whether fasting or full, about one
and a half degrees.

With respect to the agent of chymification, that prin-
ciple of life which converts the crude aliment into chyme,
and renders it fit for the action of the hepatic and pan-
creatic fluids, and final assimilation and conversion into
the fluids, and the various tissues of the animal organism
— no part of physiology has, perhaps, so much engaged
the attention of mankind, and exercised the ingenuity of
physiologists. It has been a fruitful source of theoreti-
cal speculation, from the Father of Medicine down to
the present age. It would be a waste of time to attempt
to refute the doctrines of the older writers on this sub-
ject. Suffice it to say, that the theories of Concoction,
Putrefaction, Trituration, Fermentation, and Macera-
tion, have been prostrated in the dust before the lights
of science, and the deductions of experiment. It was

66 SPALLANZANl's THEORY OF CHYMIFICATION.

reserved for Spallanzani to overthrow all these unfound-
ed hypotheses, and to erect upon their ruins, a theory
which will stand the test of scientific examination and
experiment. He established a theory of chemical so-
lution, and taught that chymification was owing to the
solvent action of a fluid, secreted by the stomach, and
operating as a true menstruum of alimentary substances.
To this fluid he gave the name of Gastric Juice. It
does not come within the scope of this work to give a
detail of the experiments and reasoning which wrought
conviction in the mind of this great man. It is only ne-
cessary to say, that it was the result of patient and per-
severing experiment and research.

The truth of Spallanzani's theory has been sustained,
so far as relates to the most important part, the existence
of a chemical solvent, by all who have made fair exami-
nations and experiments on the subject. The experi-
ments of Tiedemann and Gmelin, of Leuret and Las-
saigne, confirm the same theory.

By far the most respectable and intelligent physiolo-
gists have now settled down in the belief that chymifica-
tion is effected in the stomach, by a peculiar and specific
solvent, secreted in that organ, called, after Spallanzani,
the Gastric Juice. From the difficulty, however, of ob-
taining and submitting such fluid to the test of experi-
ment, and the diversity of results in the examination of
such as has been obtained, much indefiniteness is expe-
rienced on this subject. The presence of an active sol-
vent is rather an admission on their part — a conclusion
from the effect to the cause. Broussais, speaking on this

OPINIONS ON THE GASTRIC JUICE. 67

subject, says : " It remains for us to know whether the
portion of mucous membrane, belonging to the stomach,
contains secretory organs, the office of which is to furnish
a fluid, fit to produce the assimilation of nutritive sub-
stances/' And again, speaking of the gastric juice,
" The question is as yet undecided, though, if we are to
judge by analogy, we shall observe that many animals
are furnished with gastric glands, supplying a digestive
liquid." This author admits the presence of a solvent
fluid in the stomach, without, however, attempting to ex-
plain its specific effects, or mode of operation ; for he
says, in another place, " We have expressed our opinion
on this subject ; but whether the gastric fluids possess
an assimilating property, which, for ourselves, we admit,
without pretending to demonstrate its actual presence,"
&c.

Richerand, Bostock, and nearly all the authors of mo-
dern date, teach the doctrine of digestion by the gastric
juiee, without, however, pretending to explain its exact
mode of operation. Professor Dunglison, whose work on
" Human Physiology," taken as a whole, is perhaps the
most comprehensive, arrives at the same conclusion. He
says, " We have too many evidences in favour of the che-
mical action of some secretion fi-om the stomach during
digestion, to permit us to doubt for a moment of the fact."
And again, " From all these facts, then, we are justified
in concluding, that the food in the stomach is subjected
o the action of a secretion which alters its properties,
and is the principal agent of converting it into chyme."

I have referred to these learned authors, with the view

68 GASTRIC JUICE HAS A SOLVENT POWER.

of shewing the exact state of the science on this sub-
ject.

Though the theory of chymification by the gastric
juice has become almost universal with physiologists, and
the medical profession in general, still there are some,
even of very modern date, who, with all the lights of
science and experiment, from aversion to the slow and
tedious processes by which truths are attained, or, per-
haps, from the ambition of becoming the discoverers of
some new and extraordinary process, or the projectors of
some fanciful theory, deny the power of the gastric juice,
or even the existence of such a fluid ; and set at naught the
experiments, observations, and opinions of the ablest phy-
siologists and most experienced writers on this subject.

That chymification is effected by the solvent action of
the gastric juice, aided by the Tnotions of the stomachy
and the natural warmth of the system, not a doubt can
remain in die mind of any candid person, who has had an
opportunity to observe its effects on alimentary substances,
or who has the liberality to credit the opinions of those
who have had such opportunities.

It has been objected to this hypothesis, that the sensible
properties of the gastric juice contradict the opinion of
its active solveiit effect. But we should recollect that
many things which make very little impression on our
external senses, produce most astonishing effects in other
situations. The air which we breathe, by which we are
surrounded, and which, to our external senses, is almost
inappreciable, is one of the most powerful and destructive
agents in nature — one portion of which is capable of com-

ANALYSIS OF GASTRIC JUICE. 69

bining with all grades of matter, either slowly and imper-
ceptibly, as in the gradual decay of all substances, or ra-
pidly, as in the combustion of wood, or even the hardest
metals, — and which, by means inexplicable to us, sus-
tains in life and being the whole of animated nature.

The gastric juice has been submitted to chemical ex-
amination and analysis, with various results. Perhaps in
the present state of the science of chemistry it will not
be practicable to ascertain its exact chemical character.
The parcels heretofore submitted to analysis have been
very impure ; but the result of even these partial exami-
nations has been, to shew that this fluid contains a por-
tion of free muriatic acid, combined with the acetic and
some salts. In the winter of 1832-33, I submitted a
quantity of gastric juice, with no other admixture except
a small proportion of the mucus of the stomach, to Pro-
fessor Dunglison for examination, who, with the assist-
ance of the professor of chemistry of the Virginia Uni-
versity, effected the following analysis, and was kind
enough to communicate the result to me by letter.

" University of Virginia,
" My Dear Sir, Feb. 6. 1833.

" Since I last wrote you, my friend and colleague Pro-
fessor Emmett, and myself, have examined the bottle of
gastric fluid which I brought with me from Washington,
and we have found it to contain free muriatic and acetic
acid, phosphates and muriates, with bases ofpotassa, soda,
magnesia, and lime, and an animal matter soluble in
cold icater, but insoluble in hot. We were satisfied, you
recollect, in Washington, that free muriatic acid was pre-

70 ANALYSIS OF GASTRIC JUICE.

sent, but I had no conception it existed to the amount
met with in our experiments here. We distilled the gas-
tric fluid, when the free acid passed over ; the salts and
animal matter remaining in the retort. The quantity of
chloride of silver thrown down on the addition of the ni-
trate of silver, was astonishing."

I had been long convinced of the existence of free mu-
riatic acid in the gastric fluids. Indeed, it is quite obvi-
ous to the sense of taste ; and most chemists agree in
this, however they may be at variance with respect to the
other constituents. The analysis of Professors Dungli-
son and Emmett is certainly as satisfactory as any that
has as yet been made. It is a question, too, whether gas-
tric juice, in so great a state of purity, has ever before
been subjected to chemical analysis.

It is to be hoped that no one will be so disingenuous
as to attribute to Professor Dunglison the design of find-
ing the existence of certain chemical agents in the gas-
tric juice, with the view of propping the theory of the
chemical action of this fluid, which he has maintained in
his work on " Human Physiology ;'' or, in other words, to
say that he had determined to find certain results ; and
that he had accordingly found them. Those who are ac-
quainted with him know that his candour and fairness are
above the reach of suspicion, and that he would be equally
willing to retract a false opinion as to maintain a correct one.
Another quantity was sent to him for further analysis, but
I regret that no report has yet been received from him.

In April of the present year (1833) a parcel was sub-

ANALYSIS OF GASTRIC JUICE. 71

mitted to Benjamin Silliman, M.D., Professor of Chemis-
try in Yale College. Professional engagements prevent-
ed his examination of the fluid until the 2d of August,
when he sent me the following result : —

" Examination of the Gastric Fluid, Aug. 2, 1833.

"1. The fluid, after being kept in a closely-corked
phial more than three months, from April to August, and
most of the time in a cellar, remained unaltered, except
the formation of a pellicle upon the surface, slightly dis-
coloured by red spots. A second pellicle appeared after
the precipitation of the first. It was thicker, and more
discoloured with dark red spots, like venous blood.

" 2. The fluid was cloudy, like a solution of gum ara-
ble ; but on filtering it became perfectly clear, and of a
slight straw-yellow tinge.

" 3. The pellicles, which had the appearance of in-
spissated mucus, after being separated from the fluid, be-
came, after exposure to the air, throughout of a brownish-
red colour, resembling the inner portion of a mass of co-
agulated blood. This change seemed to result from a
sudden oxygenation.

" 4. The fluid exhaled a slight odour^ — not disagree-
able— rather aromatic, and very similar to that which it
at first exhaled, but not so strong. It was then rather
disagreeable.

" 5. Taste feebly saline, not disagreeable.

" 6. Test papers of litmus, alkanet, and purple cab-
bage, were decidedly reddened. Turmeric paper under-
went no change ; but, when previously browned by an

72 COMPOSITION OF GASTRIC JUICE.

alkali (ammonia), the gastric fluid restored the yellow co-
lour.

" ?• Nitrate of silver gave a dense white precipitate,
which, after standing five minutes in the sun's light, turn-
ed to a dark brownish- black, thus indicating muriatic acid.
Mur. and nit. barytes gave a slight opalescence, indicat-
ing a trace of sulphuric acid ; not improbably there was
also some phosphoric acid.

" 8. Specific gravity, when taken in a small thin glass
tube, containing 201 grs. of distilled water, when filled
with the gastric fluid its weight was increased 1 gr. ;
weight of the gastric liquor, therefore, 202 grs. The
specific gravity is, therefore, about 1.005. But little
solid matter in solution."

At the instance of Professor Silliman, I committed to
the care of Mr Ghan, Consul of his Swedish Majesty in
New York, a bottle containing one pint of gastric juice,
to be transmitted by him to Professor Berzelius of Stock-
holm, one of the most eminent chemists of the age, with
a request that he would favour me with an analysis. Some
unavoidable delay was experienced in forwarding the bot-
tle, and no returns have yet been received. It is hoped,
however, that they will arrive in time to be attached in
an appendix to this volume.

The following results have been obtained from partial
examinations and analyses of the gastric juice, or rather,
in most instances, of the mixed fluids of the stomach.

Spallanzani, in 1793, after many experiments, declared
the gastric juice to be entirely neutral, a solvent for all-

COMPOSITION OF GASTRIC JUICE. 73

mentary matter within and without the stomach, that it
did not -putrefy at the ordinary temperatm'e of the sto-
mach, but preserved animal matters from putrefaction,
and dissolved them with the aid of heat.

Scopoli found in the gastric juice of the rook, water,
gelatine, a saponaceous matter, muriate of ammonia, and
phosphate of lime.

Carminiti, in 1795, found it, in carnivorous animals,
salt and bitter, and frequently acid when they had eaten,
but not so when fasting.*

Viridet, Werner, Hunter, and others, found the gas-
tric juice acid.

MM. Marquart and Vauquelin found albumen and free
phosphoric acid in it.

Tiedemann and Gmelin found it to contain, on analysis,
muriatic and acetic acid, mucus, very little or no albumen,
salivary matter, osmazome,'muriate and sulphate of soda.
In the ashes, carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate of lime,
and chloride of calcium. Principally from carnivorous
animals.

Lcuret and Lassaigne, in a hundred parts, found wa-
ter ninety-eight, lactic acid, muriate of ammonia, muriate
of soda, animal matter soluble in water, mucus, and phos-
phate of lime two parts.

Montegre (1812), who could vomit at will^\ and who
analyzed the fluid so obtained, declared it not to be acid —

* Probably because the fluid found in the stomach when fasting
was not gastric juice.

t See remarks near the close of this section on Montegre's
experiments.

74 GASTRIC JUICE HAS ACTIVE PROPERTIES.

not a solvent — not slow to putrefy — and so much like sa^
liva, that he regards it as saliva swallowed.

Prout, 1824, declares the gastric juice to be really acid
— does not contain an organic acid, but free hydrocliloric
or muriatic acid.

These opinions are certainly discordant. The majority
of evidence, however, is in favour of the existence of
pretty active chemical agents in the gastric fluids — per-
liaps not sufficient, in comparison with the ordinary ope-
rations of chemistry, to account for the digestion or solu-
tion of aliment.

The discrepance of results in the reports of those who
have had opportunities of examining the process of, and
have made experiments on, artificial digestion, by the
gastric juice, as well as in the chemical examination of
this fluid, has been owing more to the difficulty of obtain-
ing it pure, in sufficient quantity, and under proper circum-
stances, than to any real difference in its effects. Under
the circumstances in which the following experiments
were made, I flatter myself that these difficulties have
been obviated ; and if the inferences are incorrect, the
blame must be attached to the experimenter. He can
only say, that the experiments were made in good faith,
and with a view to elicit facts.

I think I am warranted, from the result of all the ex-
periments, in saying, that the gastric juice, so far from
being " inert as water," as some authors assert, is the
most general solvent in nature of alimentary matter —
even the hardest bone cannot withstand its action. It is

GASTRIC JUICE HAS ACTIVE PROPERTIES. 75

capable, etien out of the stomachy of effecting perfect di-
gestion, with the aid of due and uniform degrees of heat
(100°. Fahrenheit), and gentle agitation, as will be seen
in the following experiments.

The fact that alimentary matter is transformed^ in the
stomach, into chyme, is now pretty generally conceded.
The peculiar process by which the change is effected,
has been, by many, considered a problem in physiology.
Without pretending to explain the exact inodits operandi,
of the gastric fluid, yet I am impelled by the weight of
evidence, afforded by the experiments, deductions, and
opinions of the ablest physiologists, but more by direct
experiment, to conclude that the change eflPected by it on
aliment is purely chemical. We must, I think, regard
this fluid as a chemical agent, and its operation as a che-
mical action. It is certainly every way analogous to it ;
and I can see no more objection to accounting for the
change effected on the food, on the supposition of a che-
mical process, than I do in accounting for the various and
diversified modifications of matter, which are operated on
in the same way. The decay of the dead body is a che-
mical operation, separating it into its elementary prin-
(tiples — and why not the solution of aliment in the sto-
mach, and its ultimate assimilation into fibrine, gelatine,
and albumen ? Matter, in a natural sense, is indestruc-
tible. It may be differently combined ; and these com-
binations are chemical changes. It is well known that
all organic bodies are composed of very few simple prin-
ciples, or substances, modified by excess or diminution
of some of their constituents.

76 GASTRIC JUICE ACTS CHEMICALLY*

The gastric juice appears to be secreted from number-
less vessels, distinct and separate from the mucous folli-
cles. These vessels, when examined with a microscope,
appear in the shape of small lucid points, or very fine
papillae, situated in the interstices of the follicles. They
discharge their fluid only when solicited to do so, by the
presence of aliment, or by mechanical irritation.

Pure gastric juice, when taken directly out of the sto-
mach of a healthy adult, unmixed with any other fluid,
save a portion of the mucus of the stomach, with which
it is most commonly, and perhaps always combined, is a
clear transparent fluid ; inodorous, a little saltish, and
very perceptibly acid. Its taste, when applied to the
tongue, is similar to thin mucilaginous water, slightly aci-
dulated with muriatic acid. It is readily diffusible in
water, wine, or spirits ; slightly effervesces with alkalis ;
and is an effectual solvent of the materia alimentaria. It
possesses the property of coagulating albumen in an emi-
nent degree ; is powerfully antiseptic, checking the
putrefaction of meat ; and effectually restorative of healthy
action, when applied to old foetid sores, and foul ulcera-
ting surfaces.

Saliva and mucus are sometimes abundantly mixed
w^ith the gastric juice. The mucus may be separated,
by filtering the mixture through fine linen or muslin-
cambric. The gastric juice, and part of the saliva, will
pass through, while the mucus and spumous, or frothy
part of the saliva, remains on the filter. When not se-
parated by the filter, the mucus gives a ropiness to the.
fluid, that does not belong to the gastric juice, and soon

APPEARANCE OF GASTRIC JUICE. 77

falls to the bottom, in loose white flocculi. Saliva im-
parts to the gastric juice an azure tinge, and frothy ap-
pearance ; and, when in large proportion, renders it foetid
in a few days ; whereas the pure gastric juice will keep
for many months, without becoming foetid.

The gastric juice does not begin to accumulate in the ca-
vity of the stomach, until alimentary matter be received, and
excite its vessels to discharge their contents, for the imme-
diate purpose of digestion. It is then seen to exude from
its proper vessels, and increases in proportion to the quan-
tity of aliment naturally required, and received. A de-
finite proportion of aliment, only, can be perfectly digested
in a given quantity of the fluid. From experiments on
artificial digestion, it appears that the proportion of juice
to the ingestae, is greater than is generally supposed. Its
action on food is indicative of its chemical character.
Like other chemical agents, it decomposes or dissolves,
and after combining with a fixed and definite quantity of
matter, its action ceases. When the juice becomes sa-
turatedy it refuses to dissolve more ; and, if an excess of
food have been taken, the residue remains in the stomach,
or passes into the bowels in a crude state, and frequently
becomes a source of nervous irritation, pain, and disease,
for a long time ; or until the vis medicatrix natures, re-
stores the vessels of this viscus to their natural and
healthy actions — either with or without the aid of medi-
cine J^

Such are the appearance and properties of the gastric

* This important principle ought never to be lost sight of by
the practitioner.— Editor.

78 GASTRIC SECRETION PROPORTIONED TO WANTS.

juice ; though it is not always to be obtained pure. It
varies with the changing condition of the stomach.
These variations, however, depend upon the admixture
of other fluids, such as saUva, water, mucus, and some-
times bile ; and, perhaps, pancreatic juice. The special
solvent itself — the gastric juice — is, probably, invariably
the same substance. Derangement of the digestive or-
gans, slight febrile excitement^ fright^ or any sudden af-
fection of the passions,) causes material alterations in its
appearance. Overburthening the stomach, produces aci-
dity a,nd rancidity in this organ, and retards the solvent
action of the gastric juice. General febrile irritation
seems entirely to suspend its secretion into the gastric
cavity ; and renders the villous coat dry, red, and irri-
table. Under such circumstances, it will not respond to
the call of alimentary stimulus.* Fear and anger check
its secretion, also ; — the latter causes an influx of bile
into the stomach, which impairs its solvent properties.

When food is received into the stomach, the gastric
vessels are excited by its stimulus to discharge their con-
tents, and then chymification commences. It has been
a favourite opinion of authors, that food, after it has
been received into the stomach, should " remain there a
short period before it undergoes any change ;"t the com-
mon estimate is one hour. But this is an erroneous
conclusion, arising from inaccuracy of observation. Why
should it remain there unchanged ? It has been received

* Hence the obvious necessity of a scrupulous attention to diet
during fever, and other acute diseases. — Editor,

-|- Paris on Diet, p. 39.

ITS ACTION ON FOOD IS IMMEDIATE. 79

into the organ which is to effect an important change
upon it — the gastric juice is ready to commence its work
of solution soon after the first mouthful is swallowed ;
and, certainly, if we admit that the gastric juice performs
the office of a chemical agent, which most physiologists
allow, it is contrary to all our notions of chemical action,
to allow it one moment to rest. It must commence its
operation immediately. That [it does so, is distinctly
manifested by close observation of its action on food, in
the healthy stomach.

But Paris is not alone in this opinion. It appears to
have been a favourite doctrine ; and has been regularly
handed down from one physiologist to another as a sort
of heir'loom to the profession. The successors in the
physiological sciences seem to have been compelled to
receive it with the legacy of their predecessors, without
any doubt of its legitimacy ; when, with a little rational
examination of the subject, it would have been found a
fair subject of rejection. It will be seen, by the follow-
ing experiments, that it has not the slightest foundation
in truth ; and to them I refer the reader.

It has been said that when one meal follows another in
quick succession — or, in other words, when a subsequent
meal is taken before the previous one is digested, that it
somehow disturbs the process of digestion. This is ge-
nerally true ; and it allows of a definite solution. It is
because more is received into the storiiach, in the aggre-
gate, than the gastric juice can dissolve. And this dis-
turbance will result as well when too much food has been
taken at once, as when too much has been received in

80 EVILS OF FREQUENT EATING EXPLAINED.

rapid succession. But, if the quantity be moderate, no ill
effect will ensue. Many children are in the habit of eat-
ing as often as once an hour through the day, in small
quantities, without experiencing any bad consequences.
Cooks are also accustomed to the p^ractice of constantly
tasting of the various articles of food which they are pre-
paring for the table, and yet I am not aware that they
suffer any inconvenience from the habit. From these
and other facts, as well as from direct experiment, I think
it is perfectly apparent that digestion must progress as
well before as after the expiration of an hour. If, as has
been suggested, the ingestion of food, in addition to the
delay to itself, retards or stops the chymification of that
which had been previously received, aliment, as it relates
to those children who eat hourly, would be constantly ac-
cumulating, and there would remain in the stomach at
night the whole quantity taken through the day — a sup-
position not to be credited, even by those disposed to
make the most of a favourite opinion or doctrine.

Doctor Wilson Philip, in his " Treatise on Indiges-
tion," says, " the layer of food lying next to the surface
of the stomach is first digested, and, in proportion as this
undergoes the proper change, and is moved by the mus-
cular action of the stomach, that next in turn succeeds,
to undergo the same change." That chymification^com-
mences on the surface of the food, I have no doubt ; but
I apprehend this to be the case as it respects each indi-
vidual portion^ and not the whole mass. I have frequent-
ly taken out portions from the stomach a few minutes
after they had been received into that organ, when they

EVILS OF FREQUENT EATING EXPLAINED. 81

appeared to have received a full supply of gastric juice
for perfect digestion, when submitted to the artificial
mode. When a due and moderate supply of food has
been received, it is probable that the whole quantity of
gastric juice for its complete solution is secreted, and
mixed with it in a short time. When an unusually full
meal has been eaten, the necessary quantity for its com-
plete solution is not so readily supplied. If a tenacious
mass of food be used, the external portion of the whole
quantity is first acted on, digested, and succeeding por-
tions presented, &c. There is no ground for the opinion
inferred, that the gastric juice never leaves the parietes
of the stomach, except as it chymifies food. It is a thin
fluid, and is governed by the same laws that other thin
fluids are. From numerous examinations of the stomach,
I feel warranted in saying, at least in the human subject,
that there is a perfect admixture of gastric juice and food
— that the particles of food are constantly changing their
relations with each other, and that they are mixed with
a quantity of fluid, the gastric juice, liquids that have
been taken during the meal, and (as there has generally
been observed a large proportion of fluid, even after a
dry and solid meal) I have been led to suspect a synthe-
tic formation of water from its elements. This mixture
is perfectly heterogeneous at first, and is kept in constant
agitation by the churning motions of the stomach. If
the contents of the stomach be taken out in from thirty
minutes to an hour after eating, they will be found to be
composed of perfectly formed chyme and particles of food,
intimately mixed and blended ; sometimes in larger and

82 GASTRIC JUICE APPLIED TO ALL THE FOOD AT ONCE.

sometimes in smaller proportions, according to the vigor-
ous or enfeebled state of the digestive organs, or the
quantity or quality of aliment taken. Most commonly,
if the meal have been moderate, the process of digestion
will continue in the portion taken out, when it is placed
on the bath at a proper temperature, and the motions of
the stomach are imitated.

From the circumstance, that the introduction of sponge,
tubes, pebbles, &c., by Spallanzani and others excited the
discharge of the gastric juice, and from the fact that the
gum-elastic tube, in my experiments, produced the same
effect when the stomach was empty and healthy, I infer
that the first effect of aliment on the stomach is one of
irritation of the gastric papillae, thus exciting the dis-
charge of the gastric juice, and stimulating the muscular
fibres of the stomach. The vermicular motions, being
excited by mechanical irritation, not only carry the in-
gestae into all parts of the stomach, and diffuse its me-
chanical influence throughout the whole inner surface of
this organ ; but, by this means, they uniformly mix the
aliment with the gastric juice, which is constantly being
secreted in proportion to the quantity of food received
into the stomach (unless that be too much for the wants
of the economy) until chymification be completed. Some
stimulus seems to be necessary to continue the motions
of the stomach after chymification is accomplished, in
order to effect its complete discharge into the lower
bowels. And it appears highly probable that the com-
pound fluid of gastric juice and aliment, or chyme, by its
acquired acid properties, affords this stimulus, and pro-

OLD AND NEW FOOD MIX. 83

pagates the contractile motions of this organ, even after
the mechanical irritation of the crude food ceases. This
fluid acquires new chemical properties, becomes more
acid and stimulating, as chymification advances, until it
is completed. When it is all transferred to the duodenum,
the motions of the stomach cease.

From a number of experiments on rabbits by Doctor
Wilson Philip* with the view of ascertaining the process
of digestion, this gentleman has brought his mind to the
conclusion, that when food has been taken at diiferent
times, " the new is never mixed with the old food." With
every feeling of respect for so valuable and indefatigable
a contributor to physiological science, I must beg leave,
however, to dissent from this opinion. In many of his
experiments the rabbits were killed soon after the intro-
duction of a fresh quantity of food, and, generally, of a
very different kind. The result was, that it was found
separate from the old food, which was in an advanced
stage of digestion. It was in the centre of the old food,
and surrounded by it. This is precisely where a new
bolus would be received, and retain its shape and con-
sistence, in some measure, until disturbed and broken up
by the motions of the stomach. By allowing sufficient
time for the action of this organ, it is probable that the
line of separation would not have been perceived. In-
deed, the Doctor concedes that, when the second quan-
tity of food was of the same kind as the first, and the rab-
bit had been left to live for some time, the line of sepa-
ration was very indistinct. It appears that he fed rab-
* On Digestion.

84 NEW AND OLD FOODS MIX.

bits on oats^ and, after making them fast for sixteen or
seventeen hours, he fed them on as much cabbage as they
chose to eat, " and killed them at different periods, from
one to eight hours after they had eaten it ;" when the line
of separation between the new food and that which had
been eaten from eighteen to twenty-Jive hours before was
no doubt quite distinct. I confess I know very little about
the habits of these animals as it respects their modes of
digestion ; but I should be inclined to think that, if the
" line of separation" between the two portions of food
were not sufficiently distinct, it was not for want oitime.
In man, one-fifth of the time would have been more than
sufficient to have disposed of any reasonable quantity of
food.

Comparative physiology, as well as comparative ana-
tomy, is undoubtedly very useful ; but, at the same time,
it will not do to make it of general application. The rab-
bit is a ruminating animal ; and is it not probable that
the " new food" found in the " small curvature," if it be
in fact retained there, is detained for the purpose of re-
gurgitation and remastication before it is digested ? If
the circumstance be true, and there be no deception in
the case, I think this snust be the design of the con-
trivance.

Arguments from analogy may be very plausible, and
are certainly very allowable when the subject presents no
other mode, but they are not conclusive. We cannot
judge of the mode of digestion in the human stomach by
that of animals, particularly the granivorous and rumina-
ting animals. Carnivorous animals most resemble man

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON DIGESTION. 85

in their digestive apparatus. One thing is certain, and
it is capable of demonstration in the stomach of the sub-
ject of these experiments, that old and new food, if they
are in the same state of comminution, are readily and
speedily mixed in the stomach.

On the subject of exercise or repose, during the diges-
tion of a meal, there has been some diversity of opinion.
It has generally been conceded, however, that a state of
repose is most favourable to chymification. It has been
said that during the digestion of aliment, the energies of
the system were centred on the stomach, and should not
be withdrawn to any distant part ; that the stomach be-
comes a " centre of fluxion," &c. &c. I protest, again,
against the use of terms which have no definite meaning.
I believe the benefits of science will be better subserved
by adhering to facts, and the deductions of experiment,
than by the propagation of hypotheses founded on un-
certain data. From numerous trials, 1 am persuaded
that moderate exercise conduces considerably to healthy
and rapid digestion.* The discovery was the result of
accident, and contrary to preconceived opinions. I ac-
count for it in the following way. Gentle exercise in-

* Perhaps the Author's proposition is expressed in too general
terms. After a moderate meal, such as we are accustomed to take
at luncheon, moderate exercise seems to promote digestion. But
that active exercise immediately after z.full meal, such as is gene-
rally taken for dinner, is prejudicial to its digestion, seems to
me to be proved by daily and unequivocal experience, and I
have often seen patients labouring under indigestion benefited
by refraining from it. During the later stages of digestion, how-
ever, beginning an hour or two after eating, moderate exercise is
unquestionably conducive to its completion. — Editor.

86 EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON DIGESTION.

creases the circulation of the system, and the temperature
of the stomach. This increase of temperature is gene-
rally about one and a half degrees. Now, if the gastric
juice be a solvent, its action is similar to other chemical
solvents, and its rapidity is increased in proportion to the
elevation of temperature. Of the reason, I leave others
to judge ; the effect is certain. Severe and fatiguing
exercise, on the contrary, retards digestion. Two rea-
sons present themselves for this, — the debility which fol-
lows hard labour, of which the stomach partakes ; and
the depressed temperature of the system, conseauent
upon perspiration and evaporation from the surface.

Exercise, sufficient to produce moderate perspiration,
increases the secretions from the gastric cavity, and pro-
duces an accumulation of a limpid fluid within the sto-
mach, slightly acid, and possessing the solvent properties
of the gastric juice in an inferior degree. This is pro-
bably a mixed fluid, a small proportion of which is gastric
juice.*

Bile is not essential to chymification. It is seldom
found in the stomach except under peculiar circum-
stances. I have observed that when the use of fat or
oily food has been persevered in for some time, tliere is
generally the presence of bile in the gastric fluids.

* I have often witnessed the effect of exercise attended with
moderate perspiration in improving both the appetite and diges-
tion, and am therefore in the habit of'recommending it to be car-
ried to that extent by dyspeptic patients. In relieving the ten-
dency to acidity, its good effects are equally apparent. The
observations in the text afford a good physiological explanation of
the fact, — Editor.

BILE NOT ESSENTIAL TO CHYMIFICATION. 87

Whether this be a pathological phenomenon, induced by
the peculiarly indigestible nature of oily food, or whether
it be a provision of nature to assist the chymification of
this particular kind of diet, I have not as yet satisfied
myself. Oil is affected by the gastric juice with consi-
derable difficulty. The alkaline properties of the bile
may render it more susceptible of solution in this fluid,
by altering its chemical character. Irritation of the py-
loric extremity of the stomach with the end of the elastic
tube, or the bulb of the thermometer, generally occasions
a flow of bile into this organ. External agitation, by
kneading with the hand on the right side, over the re-
gions of the liver and pylorus, produces the same effect.
It may be laid down as a general rule, however, subject
to the exceptions above mentioned, that bile is not ne-
cessary to the chymification of food in the stomach.
Magendie «ays, " I believe that, in certain morbid con-
ditions, the bile is not introduced into this organ " (the
stomach) ; inferring, that in a healthy state it is always
to be found there. There can hardly be a greater mis-
take. With the exceptions that I have mentioned, it is
never found in the gastric cavity in a state of health ;
and it is only in " certain morbid conditions" that it is
found there.*

* There is one form of impaired digestion in which the fat of
bacon is digested with perfect ease, where many other apparently
more appropriate articles of food oppress the stomach for hours.
It would be interesting and useful to ascertain, whether, in these
cases, bile is present in the stomach, and also to discover in-
dications by which we could predicate whether bacon will be
suitable. As yet, although I have often seen the fact of bacon
being easily digested by a weak stomach, I have not been able to

88 CHYME, ITS NATURE AND PROGRESS.

When bile is found with the gastric juice, the acid
taste is diminished, and the flavour of the bile prevails
in proportion to the quantity in the mixture.

The resulting compound of digestion in the stomach,
or chyme, has been described as " a homogeneous, pulta-
ceous, greyish substance, of a sweetish insipid taste,
slightly acid," &c. In its homogeneous appearance, it is
invariable ; but not in its colour ; that partakes very
slightly of the colour of the food eaten. It is always of
a lightish or 'greyish colour, varying in its shades and
appearance, from that of cream, to a greyish or dark-
coloured gruel. It is, also, more consistent at one time
than at another ; modified, in this respect, by the kind
of diet used. This circumstance, however, does not
affect its homogeneous character. A rich and consistent
quantity is all alike, and of the same quality. A poorer
and thinner portion is equally uniform in its appearance.
Chyme from butter, fat meats, oil, &c., resembles rich
cream. That from farinaceous and vegetable diet, has
more the appearance of gruel. It is invariably distinctly
acid.

The passage of chyme from the stomach is gradual.
Portions of chyme, as they become formed, pass out, and
are succeeded by other portions. In the early stages,
the passage of the chyme into the duodenum is more
slowly effected than in the later stages. At first, it is
more mixed with the undigested portions of aliment, and

distinguish by the symptoms, prior to experience, the cases in
which it ought to be allowed. In many cases, it proves extremely
indigestible. Possibly this may have some relation to the pre-
s>ence or absence of bile— Editor.

MONTEGRE^S THEORY OF DIGESTION. 89

is probably separated with considerable difficulty by the
powers of the stomach. In the later stages, as the whole
mass becomes more and more chymified and fitted for the
translation, the process is more rapid ; and is accelerated
by a peculiar contraction of the stomach, a description of
which will be found in the next section. It appears to be a
provision of nature, that the chyme, towards the latter
stages of its formation, should become more stimulating,
and operate on the pyloric extremity of the stomach, so
as to produce this peculiar contraction.

After the expulsion of the last particles of chyme, the
stomach becomes quiescent and no more juice is secreted
until a fi'esh supply of food is presented for its action, or
some other mechanical irritation is applied to its internal
coat.

Water and alcohol are not affected by the gastric juice.
Fluids of all kinds are subject to the same exemption,
unless they hold in solution or suspension some animal
or vegetable aliment. Fluids pass from the stomach very
soon after they are received, either by absorption or
through the pylorus.

Since the general adoption of the theory of a specific
solvent fluid, others have been proposed.

M. Montegre, who, it is said, had the power of vomit-
ing at pleasure, performed a series of experiments on
the fluids of the stomach obtained in this way, which in-
duced him to come to a different conclusion on the sub-
ject of digestion. " He conceives that what has been
supposed to be the gastric juice, is in fact nothing but

90 DRS SMITH AND JACKSON's THEORIES.

saliva ; that it possesses no peculiar powers of acting on
alimentary matter ; that the principal use of the gastric
juice is to dilute the food ; and that the only action of
the stomach consists in * une absorption vitale et elective/
in which the absorbent vessels, in consequence of their
peculiar sensibility, take up certain parts of the food and
reject others."*

A complete refutation of the conclusions drawn from
the experiments of Montegre will be found in the fact,
which has been tested by more than tvro hundred exa-
minations and experiments made by me on the gastric
cavity, that there never exists free gastric juice in the
stomach unless excited by aliment or other stimulants.
The fluid obtained by Montegre was, in all probability, a
mixture of saliva (which had been unconsciously swal-
lowed) and the mucus of the stomach. Neither of these
secretions are capable of digesting aliment, nor could
the peculiar products, generally obtained from the chemi-
cal analysis of the gastric juice, be found in them.

The hypotheses proposed by Professors Smith and
Jackson of this country, are modifications of Montegre's
theory.

The former of these gentlemen supposes that digestion
is performed "by the veins of the stomach and by the
liver." He contends, " that the first step in the process
of digestion is effected by the capillary veins originating
in the villi of the stomach, with absorbing extremities,
and terminating in the great branches of the vena portae ;"|

* Note in Bostock's Physiology, vol. ii. p. 384.
•^ Essay on Digestion, p. 63.

DBS SMITH AND JACKSON's THEORIES. 91

that this action is continued through the small intestines ;
that the absorbing veins take up the nutrient principles
of the food, and reject, as excrementitious, the innutri-
tions part ; that these nutrient principles are mixed with
the returning blood within the cavity of the abdomen,
and are carried into the liver, where the final processes
of animalization and conversion into blood are completed.

Professor Jackson, in a recent work, has proposed a
new theory, or rather revived, in some measure, the the-
ory of maceration. His hypothesis, as nearly as can be
collected from his work, is as follows : — He supposes that
digestion is performed by submitting food to the action
of diflPerent fluids, each of which has " solvent powers for
different principles ;"* that the nutrient principles exist
already formed in food, and are released from principles
that are not required for nutrition, by a species of solu-
tion, or maceration. The diflPerent fluids, as saliva, mu-
cus from the mouth, throat, stomach, intestines, the bile
and pancreatic juice, are the solvents of the diflPerent in-
nutritive principles, and separate them from nutriment.
He attributes great importance to the action of the sa-
liva ; thinks it exercises a " very energetic operation on
the food," &c., and denies, altogether, the existence of a
specific solvent fluid.

It is unfortunate for the interests of physiological
science, that it generally falls to the lot of men of vivid
imaginations, and great powers of mind, to become res-
tive under the restraints of a tedious and routine mode

* Principles of Medicine, founded on the Structure and Func-
tions of the Animal Organism, p. 354.

92 DRS SMITH AND JACKSON's THEORIES.

of thinking, and to strikeout into bold and original hy-
potheses to elucidate the operations of nature, or to ac-
count for the phenomena that are constantly submitted
to their inspection. The process of developing truth by
patient and persevering investigation, experiment, and
research, is incompatible with their notions of unrestrain-
ed genius. The drudgery of science they leave to hum-
bler and more unpretending contributors. The flight
of genius is, however, frequently erratic. The bold and
original opinions of Brown for a long time unsettled the
practice of medicine ; and the later opinions of Montegre
and others, have had a like effect on the sister science of
physiology. It iS) however, a right, which men of genius
possess, in common with others, to propose hypotheses,
and to support them with such arguments and deductions
as they may have in their power to bring. Great cau-
tion and circumspection ought, however, to be observed.^
It is dangerous to unsettle long established truths ; for
it is difficult to limit the extent of error. The gratifica-
tion of a morbid desire to be distinguished as the propa-
gator of new principles in philosophy, or as the head of a
new sect, is not the only result to be expected from such
heresies. New opinions or doctrines, whether true or
false, will have admirers and followers, and will lead to
practical results. And the errors of one man may lead
thousands into the same vortex.

These, of course, are designed as general remarks ;
and I have no wish to apply them, so far as bad motives
are inferred, to the highly respectable gentlemen men-
tioned above. Honest objections, no doubt, are enter-

DRS SMITH AND JACKSON's THEORIES. 9^

tained against the doctrine of digestion by the gastric
juice. That they are so entertained by these gentlemen,
I have no doubt. And I cheerfully concede to them the
merit of great ingenuity, talents, and learning, in raising
objections to the commonly received hypothesis, and
ability in maintaining their peculiar opinions. But we
ought not to allow ourselves to be seduced by the inge-
nuity of argument or the blandishments of style. Truth,
like beauty, when " unadorned, is adorned the most ;"
and in prosecuting these experiments and inquiries, I be-
lieve I have been guided by its light. Facts are more
persuasive than arguments, however ingeniously made,
and by their eloquence, I hope I have been able to plead
for the support and maintenance of those doctrines, which
have had for their advocates such men as Sydenham,
Hunter, Spallanzani, Richerand, Abernethy, Broussais,
Philip, Paris, Bostock, the Heidelberg and Paris Pro-
fessors, Dunglison, and a host of other luminaries in the
science of physiology.

( 94 )

CHAPTER VII.

OF THE APPEARANCE OF THE VILLOUS COAT, AND OF
THE MOTIONS OF THE STOMACH.

Appearance of the villous coat— Gastric Papillae — Healthy aspect
of the villous coat — Its aspect in disease — Motions in the sto-
mach— Effects of — Order of contraction in the muscular fibres
of the stomach — Passage of the chyme out of the stomach.

The inner coat of the stomach, in its natural and
healthy state, is of a light, or pale pink colour, varying
in its hues, according to its full or empty state. It is of
a soft or velvet-like appearance, and is constantly co-
vered with a very thin, transparent, viscid mucus, lining
the whole interior of the organ.

Immediately beneath the mucous coat, and apparently
incorporated with the villous membrane, appear small,
spheroidal, or oval shaped, glandular bodies, from which
the mucous fluid appears to be secreted.

By applying aliment, or other irritants, to the internal
coat of the stomach, and observing the effect through a
magnifying glass, innumerable minute lucid points, and
very fine nervous or vascular papillae, can be seen arising
from the villous membrane, and protruding through the
mucous coat, from which distils a pure, limpid, colour-
less, slightly viscid fluid. This Jiuid, thus excited, is in-

GASTRIC PAPILLA AND THEIR SECRETIONS. 95

variably distinctly acid. The mucus of the stomach is
less fluid, more viscid or albuminous, semi-opaque, some-
times a little saltish, and does not possess the slightest
character of acidity. On applying the tongue to the mu-
cous coat of the stomach, in its empty, unirritated state,
no acid taste can be perceived. When food, or other
irritants have been applied to the villous membrane, and
the gastric papillae excited, the acid taste is immediately
perceptible. These papillae, I am convinced fi'om ob-
servation, form a part of what are called by authors, the
villi of the stomach. Other vessels, perhaps absorbing
as well as secretory, compose the remainder. That some
portion of the villi forms the excretory ducts of the ves-
sels, or glands, I have not the least doubt, from innume-
rable ocular examinations of the process of secretion of
gastric juice. The invariable effect of applying aliment
to the internal, but exposed part of the gastric membrane,
when in a healthy condition, has been the exudation of
the solvent fluid, from the above-mentioned papillae. —
Though the apertures of these vessels could not be seen,
even with the assistance of the best microscopes that
could be obtained, yet the points from which the fluid
issued were clearly indicated by the gradual appearance
of innumerable very fine lucid specks, rising through the
transparent mucous coat, and seeming to burst, and dis-
charge themselves upon the very points of the papillae,
diffusing a limpid, thin fluid over the whole interior gas-
tric surface. This appearance is conspicuous only during
alimentation or chymifi cation. These lucid points, I
have no doubt, are the termination of the excretory ducts

96 GASTRIC PAPILLAE AND THEIR SECRETIONS.

of the gastric vessels or glands, though the closest and
most accurate observation may never be able to discern
their distinct apertures.

The fluid so discharged, is absorbed by the aliment in
contact, or collects in small drops and trickles down the
sides of the stomach to the more depending parts, and
there mingles with the food or whatever else may be
contained in the gastric cavity. This fluid, the efficient
cause of digestion — the true gastric juice of Spallanzani,
I have no doubt— has generally been obtained, for expe-
riment, by mechanical irritation of the internal coat of
the stomach, produced by the introduction of a gum-
elastic tube, through which it has been procured.

The gastric juice never appears to be accumulated in
the cavity of the stomach while fasting ; and is seldom, if
ever, discharged from its proper secerning vessels, except
when excited by the natural stimulus of aliment, mecha-
nical irritation of tubes, or other excitants. When ali-
ment is received, the juice is given out in exact proportion
to its requirements for solution, except when more food has
been taken than is necessary for the wants of the system.

When mechanical irritation by a non-digestible sub-
stance, as the elastic tube, stem of the thermometer, &c.,
has been used, the secretion is probably less than when
the irritation has been produced by such substances as
are readily dissolved in the gastric juice. Alimentary
stimulus, when taken into the stomach, is diffused over
the whole villous surface, and excites the gastric vessels
generally to excrete their fluids copiously ; whereas the
irritation of tubes, &c., is local, and produces only a par-

BEA^LTflY ASPECT OP THE VILLOUS COAT. 97

tial excitement of the vessels, and a scanty flow of the
gastric juice. Hence the slowness in obtaining the clear
fluid from the empty stomach through the tube. I have
never, on numerous trials, been able to obtain at any one
time more than one and a half or two ounces of this fluid
after the stomach had disposed of its alimentary matters,
however long the period of abstinence had been. The
discharge of this small quantity has generally been ex-
cited by the introduction of the tube. Ten, fifteen, or
more minutes, were necessary to collect even this small
quantity. Whenever fluid was obtained in larger quan-
tity, as was sometimes the case, it invariably contained
more than the usual quantity of mucus.

On viewing the interior of the stomach, the peculiar
formation of the inner coats is distinctly exhibited.
When empty, the rugae appear irregularly Tolded upon
each other, almost in a quiescent state, of a pale pink
colour, with the surface merely lubricated with mucus.
On the application of aliment^ the action of the vessels is
increased, the colour brightened, and the vermicular mO'
tions excited. The small gastric papillae begin to dis*
charge a clear transparent fluid (the alimentary solvent),
which continues abundantly to aocumulate as aliment is
r-eceived for digestion.

If the mucous covering of the villous coat be wiped off
with a sponge or handkerchief during the period of chy-
mification, the membrane appears roughish, of a deep
pink colour at first ; but in a few seconds, the follicles
and fine papillae begin to pour out their respective fluids,
which being diffused over the parts abraded of mucus,

98 ITS APPEARANCE IN DISEASE.

restore to them their peculiar soft and velvet-like appear-
ance, and pale pink colour, corresponding with the undis-
turbed portions of the membrane, and the gastric juice
goes on accumulating, and trickles down the sides of the
stomach again.

If the membrane be wiped off when the stomach is
emptjj or during the period of fasting, a similar rough-
ness and deepened colour appear, though in a less de-
gree, and the mucous exudation is more slowly restored.
The follicles appear to swell more gradually. The fluids
do not accumulate in quantity sufficient to trickle down^
as during the time of chymification. The mucous coat
only appears to be restored.

The foregoing, I believe to be the natural appearances
of the internal coat of the stomach in a healthy condition
of the system.

In disease, or partial derangement of the healthy func-
tion, this membrane presents various and essentially dif-
ferent appearances.

In febrile diathesis, or predisposition, from whatever
cause— obstructed perspiration, undue excitement by
stimulating liquors, overloading the stomach with food —
fear, anger, or whatever depresses or disturbs the nervous
system — the villous coat becomes sometimes red and dry,
at other times, pale and moist, and loses its smooth and
healthy appearance ; the secretions become vitiated,
greatly diminished, or entirely suppressed ; the mucous
coat scarcely perceptible ; the follicles flat and flaccid,
with secretions insufficient to protect the vascular and
liervous papillae from irritation.

ASPECT OF VILLOUS COAT IN DISEASE. 99

There are sometimes found, on the internal coat of the
stomach, eruptions or deep red pimples, not numerous,
but distributed here and there upon the villous mem-
brane, rising above the surface of the mucous coat. These
are at first sharp-pointed and red, but frequently become
filled with white purulent matter. At other times, irre-
gular, circumscribed red patches, varying in size or ex-
tent from half an inch to an inch and a half in circum-
ference, are found on the internal coat. These appear
to be the effect of congestion in the minute bloodvessels
of the stomach. There are, also, seen at times small
aphthous crusts in connection with these red patches.
Abrasion of the lining membrane, like the rolling up of
the mucous coat into small shreds or strings, leaving the
papillae bare for an indefinite space, is not an uncommon
appearance.

These diseased appearances, when very slight, do not
always affect essentially the gastric apparatus. When
considerable, and particularly when there are correspond-
ing symptoms of disease, as dryness of the mouth, thirst,
accelerated pulse, &c., no gastric juice can he extracted,
not even on the application of alimentary stimulus.
Drinks received are immediately absorbed, or otherwise
disposed of, none remaining in the stomach ten minutes
after being swallowed. Food taken in this condition of
the stomach, remains undigested for twenty-four or forty-
eight hours or more, increasing the derangement of the
whole alimentary canal, and aggi'avating the general
symptoms of disease.*

* These appearances of the villous coat and the non-secretion

100 Motions of the stomach.

After excessive eating or drinking, chymificatioH ig
retarded ; and, although the appetite be not always im-
paired at first, the fluids become acrid and sharp, exco-
riating the edges of the aperture, and almost invariably
produce aphthous patches, and the other indications of
a diseased state of the internal membrane, mentioned
above. Vitiated bile is also found in the stomach under
these circumstances ; and floccvdi of mucus are much
more abundant than in health.

Whenever this morbid condition of the stomach occurs^
with the usual accompanying symptoms of disease, there
is generally a corresponding appearance of the tongue.
When a healthy state of the stomach is restored, the
tongue invariably becomes clean.

Motions of the Stomach. — With the anatomy of
this organ, I have at present nothing to do ; it does not
come within the limits which I have prescribed to myself.
Its motions, as comprising a part of the process of diges-
tion, I have endeavoured to observe as accurately as
practicable, and I give the result.

The human stomach is furnished with muscular fasci-
culi, so arranged as to shorten its diameter in every direc-
tion. By the alternate contraction and relaxation of
these bands, a great variety of motion is induced on this

of the gastric juice in feverish states of the system, are very im-
portant in a practical point of view, and shew how injurious, and
contrary to nature it is to insist on giving food in such circum-
stances by way of supporting the strength. Drinks are useful, be-
cause they are not digested but absorbed, and thus refresh the
body ; but solid food taken into the stomach, can act only as an
irritant where there is no gastric juice to digest it. — Editor.

MOTIONS OF THE STOMACH. 101

organ, sometimes transversely and at other times longi-
tudinally. These alternate contractions and relaxations,
when affecting the transverse diameter, produce what
are called vermicular or peristaltic motions. The effect
of the contraction of the longitudinal fibres, is to approxi-
mate the splenic and pyloric extremities. When they
all act together, the effect is to lessen the cavity of the
stomach, and to press upon the contained aliment, if
there be any in the stomach. These motions not only
produce a constant disturbance, or churning of the con-
tents of this organ, but they compel them, at the same
time, to revolve around the interior from point to point,
and from one extremity to another. In addition to these
motions, there is a constant agitation of the stomach,
produced by the respiratory muscles.

These contractions and relaxations of the nmscular
fasciculi do not observe any very exact mode. Their
motions are modified by various circumstances, such as
the stimulant or non-stimulant property of the ingestae,
the healthy or unhealthy state of the internal coat of the
stomach, by exercise, and by repose, &c. &c.

The ordinary course and direction of the revolutions
of the food, are first, after passing the oesophageal ring,
from right to left, along the small arch ; thence, through
the large curvature, from left to right. The bolus, as it
enters the cardia, turns to the left, passes the aperture,
descends into the splenic extremity, and follows the great
curvature towards the pyloric end. It then returns, in
the course of the smaller curvature, makes its appearance

102 MOTIONS OF THE STOMACH.

again at the aperture in its descent into the great curva-
ture, to perform similar revolutions.

Such I have ascertained to be the revolutions of the
contents of the stomach, from being able to identify par-
ticular portions of food, and from the fact, that the bulb
of the thermometer, which has been frequently intro-
duced during chymification, invariably indicates the same
movements. These revolutions are completed in from
one to three minutes. They are probably induced, in a
great measure, by the circular or transverse muscles of
the stomach, as indicated by the spiral motion of the stem
of the thermometer, both in descending to the pyloric
portion and ascending to the splenic* These motions
are slower at first than after chymification has conside-
rably advanced.

While these revolutions of the contents of the stomach
are progressing, the trituration or agitation is also going
on. There is a perfect admixture of the whole ingestae,
during the period of alimentation and chymification.
There is nothing of the distinct lines of separation be-
tween old and new food, and peculiar central or periphe-
ral situation of crude, as distinguished from chymified
aliment, said to have been observed by Philip, Magendie
and others, in their experiments on dogs and rabbits, to
be seen in the human stomach; at least in that of. the
subject of these experiments. The whole contents of
the stomach, until chymification be nearly complete, ex-

* The terms " descending " and " ascending," are used here, as
well as in many other places, relatively, because the examina-
tions were generally made while the man was lying on his right
side«

EFFECT OF STOMACHIC CONTRACTIONS. 103

hibit a heterogeneous mass of solids and fluids ; hard and
soft ; coarse and fine ; crude and chymified ; all inti-
mately mixed, and circulating promiscuously through the
gastric cavity, like the mixed contents of a closed vessel,
gently agitated or turned in the hand.

If a mouthful of some tenacious food be swallowed,
after digestion is considerably advanced, it will be seen
passing the opening, to the great curvature ; and in the
course of about one and a half or two minutes, it will re-
appear, with the general circulating contents, more or
less broken to pieces, or divided into smaller pieces ; and
very soon loses its identity. This agitating motion has
the eflPect, and is undoubtedly designed, to break up the
bolus, as well as to separate the external and chymified
portion of the particles of food, and allow the undigested
portions to come in contact with the gastric juice, their
proper solvent. If the motions were simply revolution-
ary, the central portions would retain their situation,
until the outer, or chymified part, had passed into the
duodenum, in successive parcels ; which, it is evident,
would very much retard the process of digestion.

As the food becomes more and more changed from its
crude to its chymified state, the acidity of the gastric
fluids is considerably increased— more so in vegetable
than animal diet, — and the general contractile force of the
muscles of the stomach is augmented in every direction ;
giving the contained fluids an impulse towards the pylorus.

It is probable, that fi'om the very commencement of
chymification — ^fi:om the time that food is received into
the stomach — until that organ becomes empty, portions

104 EFFECTS OF STOMACHIC CONTRACTIONS.

of chyme are constantly passing into the duodenum,
through the pyloric orifice, as the mass is presented at
each successive revolution. I infer this from the fact
that the volume is constantly decreasing. This decrease
of volume, however, is slow at first ; but is rapidly ac-
celerated towards the conclusion of digestion, when the
whole mass becomes more or less chyraified. This ac-
celerated expulsion appears to be effected by a peculiar
action of the transverse muscles, or rather of the traTis-
verse band, as described by Spallanzani, Haller, Cooper^
Sir E. Home, and others, in their experiments on ani-
mals. This band is situated near the commencement of
the more conieally shaped part of the pyloric extremity?
three or four inches from the smaller end. In attempt-
ing to pass a long glass-thermometer tube, through the
aperture, into the pyloric portion of the stomach, during
the latter stages of digestion, a forcible contraction is
first perceived at this point, and the bulb is stopped. In
a short time, there is a gentle relaxation, when the bulb
passes without difficulty, and appears to be drawn, quite
forcibly, for three or four inches, towards the pyloric end.
It is then released, and forced back, or suffered to rise
again ; at the same time giving to the tube a circular, or
rather spiral motion, and frequently revolving it com-
pletely over. These motions are distinctly indicated^
and strongly felt, in holding the end of the tube between
the thumb and finger ; and it requires a pretty forcible
grasp to prevent it from slipping from the hand, and be-
ing drawn suddenly down to the pyloric extremity. When
the tube is left to its own direction, at these periods of

EFFECTS OF STOMACHIC CONTRACTIONS. 105

contraction, it is drawn in, nearly its whole length, to the
depth of ten inches : and when drawn back, requires con-
siderable force, and gives to the fingers the sensation of
a strong 5wc^zow-power, like drawing the piston from an
exhausted tube. This ceases as soon as the relaxation
occurs, and the tube rises again, of its own accord, three
or four inches, when the bulb seems to be obstructed
from rising further; but if pulled up an inch or two,
through the stricture, it moves freely in all directions in
the cardiac portions, and mostly inclines to the splenic
extremity, though not disposed to make its exit at the
aperture.

Above the contracting band, and towards the splenic
portion of the stomach, the suction or grasping motion is
not perceptible ; but when the bulb is pushed down to
this point, it is distinctly felt to be grasped, and confined
in its movements.

These peculiar motions and contractions continue un-
til the stomach is perfectly empty, and not a particle of
food or chyme remains ; when all becomes quiescent
again.

If the bulb of the thermometer be suffered to be drawn
down to the pyloric extremity, and detained there for a
short time, or if the experiment be repeated too fre-
quently, it causes severe distress, and a sensation like
cramp or spasm, which ceases on withdrawing the tube ;
but leaves a sense of soreness and tenderness at the pit
of the stomach.

The peculiar contractions and relaxations, mention-
ed above, succeed each other, at irregular intervals of

106 ORDER OF CONTRACTION IN THE

from two to four or five minTites. Simultaneously with
the contractions, there is a general shortening of the
fibres of the stomach. This organ contracts upon itself
in every direction ; and its contents are compressed with
much force. The valvular portion of the stomach is
firmly thrust into the aperture, closing the orifice, pre-
venting the egress of aliment, and obstructing the view
of the interior. During the intervals of relaxation, the
rugae perform their vermicular actions, the undulatory
motions of the fluids continue, and the alimentary and
chymous masses appear, revolving as before, promiscu-
ously mixed, through the splenic and cardiac portions.

All these facts, taken together, will, I think, rationally
admit of the following explanation. The longitudinal
muscles of the whole stomach, with the assistance of the
transverse ones of the splenic and central portions, carry
the contents into the pyloric extremity. The circular or
transverse muscles contract progressively, from left to
right. When the impulse arrives at the transverse hand,
this is excited to a more forcible contraction, and, closing
upon the alimentary matter and fluids, contained in the
pyloric end, prevents their regurgitation. The muscles
of the pyloric end, now contracting upon the contents
detained there, separate and expel some portion of the
chyme. It appears that the crude food excites the con-
tractile power of the pylorus, so as to prevent its passage
into the duodenum, while the thinner chymified portion
is'pressed through the valve, into the intestine. After
the contractile impulse is carried to the pyloric extre-
mity, the circular band, and all the transverse muscle s?

MUSCULAR FIBRES OF THE STOMACH. 107

become relaxed, and a contraction commences in a re-
versed direction, from right to left, and carries the con-
tents again to the splenic extremity, to undergo similar
revolutions.

It would appear, then, that the discharge of the chyme
from the stomach, is effected by mechanical impulse.
But, I confess, I do not like to give an opinion. I state
the circumstances as they have occurred. The idea of
mechanical force, I admit, is liable to objection ; but,
perhaps, not more so than that of the selecting power of
the pylorus. Whatever bias I may have in favour of the
former method, has been forced upon me by the deduc-
tions of experiment and observation.

( 108 )

CHAPTER VIII.

OF CHYLIFICATION, AND THE USES OF THE BILE AND
PANCREATIC JUICE.

Passage of chyme into the duodenum — and there converted into
chyle by the agency of the bile and pancreatic juice — Chyle
always the same in health — Changes occurring in the duo-
denum.

As food becomes chymified by the gastric juice, the
contractile motions of the stomach send it into the duo-
denum to receive further changes preparatory to its assi-
milation to the circulating fluids of the system by the lac-
teal absorbents. It is at first slowly received into this
organ from the stomach, but, during the later stages of
chymification, its transmission becomes more accelerated.
The duodenum is so constituted, that the passage of the
chyme through it is considerably retarded ; and hence,
in some pathological conditions of the system, the pres-
sure on that organ from repletion is considerable, and
frequently produces great pain and distress.

The vermicular motions of this and the other intes-
tines are propagated from the stomach, and are con-
tinued, after this organ has discharged all its contents,
by the contained fluids, until the whole becomes assimi-
lated. They are more or less rapid, varying at different
sections of the canal, of which it is not necessary to par-

CONVERSION OF CHYME INTO CHYLE. 109

ticularize. These motions are excited by the stimulus
of the chyme, and occur at intervals, on the introduction
of each quantity passed through the pylorus.

The chymous mass is not changed until it arrives at,
or passes the mouth of, the ductus choledochus, when the
liver and pancreas are excited to discharge their re-
spective fluids. These mix with the chyme, and pro-
duce an essential alteration in its sensible and chemical
properties. At this point the lacteal absorbents com-
mence.

That the change from a chymous to a chylous stage,
is effected by the operation of the bile and pancreatic
juice, there can be no doubt. Of the nature of this
change there is some diversity of opinion. Chyle is ge-
nerally described as " a white opaque substance, con-
siderably resembling cream in its aspect and physical
properties," * though it is said to vary slightly, accord-
ing to the kind of aliment which had been used. It is
my impression, however, that pure chyle, taken from the
lacteals of a healthy subject, and produced by natural
food, is invariably the same substance in the same indi-
vidual. Changes that have been observed must be
reckoned as the effect of a pathological state of the sys-
tem, or the absorption of a non-digesting substance. Me-
dicines and other substances, which are not capable of
digestion, are sometimes taken up by the lacteal absorb-
ents, and may produce an alteration in the physical and
chemical properties of chyle. It is possible that a small*
proportion of oil may escape the action of the digestive
* Bostock's Physiology, vol. ii. p. 392.

1 10 IN HEALTH CHYLE IS ALWAYS THE SAME.

apparatus, be absorbed by the lacteals, and produce the
opaque, white colour, mentioned by authors as some-
times appearing. Countenance is given to this sugges-
tion by the fact, that the more opaque-coloured parts of
chyle are found floating on the surface, and that it is al-
ways discovered after the ingestion of oily food. At
other times it is uniform in its colour and consistence,
whatever colouring matter may have been contained in
the food.

I wish to be understood to say, that every species of
aliment produces the same kind of nutrient principles.
With the view of attempting an investigation of this sub-
ject, as has been previously mentioned, I instituted some
imperfect experiments and examinations. From the re-
sult, see Experiments, Second Series, from 47th to 56th.
By the addition of bile and dilute muriatic acid, and sub-
sequently pancreatic juice, to chyme formed in the arti-
ficial way, as well as in the stomach, it separated into
three distinct parts, a reddish-brown sediment at the bot-
tom, a whey-coloured fluid in the centre, and a creamy
pellicle at the top. Each repetition of the experiment
produced a similar result, though not exactly alike in all.
The central portion I suspect to be imperfectly-formed
chyle. The sediment, fi'om its appearance and the
coarseness of its particles, I judge is incapable of being
acted on or taken up by the absorbents ; the creamy or
oily pellicle is not only liable to the same objection, but
is in too small proportion to the ingesta. The fluid part
is fitted, by its fluidity, for the ready action of the ab-
sorbents, and is, moreover, in sufficient quantity for the

CHANGE WHICH OCCURS IN DUODENUM* 111

purposes of nutrition. The change of colour and con-
sistence is probably effected in the lacteal glands and
vessels. The sediment and pelHcle, I apprehend, are
both excrementitial. The " irregular filaments" attached
to the valvuiae conniventes, mentioned by Magendie, and
which he concluded to be imperfectly-formed chyle, were
undoubtedly portions of the creamy pellicle found in the
experiments referred to.

But what is the nature of the changes effected in the
duodenum ? Aliment, after being introduced into the
stomach, is dissolved in the gastric juice, and forms a
new compound with this fluid. The constituent ele-
ments of food are various. When compounded with the
gastric juice, they may, nevertheless, be said to form a
simple compound, or a gastrite of aliment. I am indiffe-
rent about terms ; and this will as well convey my mean-
ing as any other. When this gastrite is introduced into
the duodenum, and mixed with the hepatic and pancrea-
tic fluids, are we not warranted, from all the facts that
have been observed, in saying, that there is a general
play of chemical affinities in that organ, separating the
nutrient principles, and forming various new compounds
from the elements of each ? The chymous mass changes
its colour, and loses its acidity. There is a sensible ex-
trication of gas, as observed by Magendie and others.*
In the stomach oxygen is found mixed with a small pro-
portion of hydrogen. In the intestines an increased pro-
portion of hydrogen exists, with carbonic acid, nitrogen,

• The escape of gas is generally observable in mixing these fluids
with chyme in my experiments.

112 CHANGE WHICH OCCURS IN DUODENUM*

kc.f but no oxygen. Does not the acid of the chyme
unite with the alkalis of the bile, and form new com-
pounds ? And do not other equally important changes
take place ? This subject, I confess, is obscure, and per-
haps will not admit of a very perfect investigation.

The constant agitation which is maintained in the in-
testines preserves the chyle in a state of perfect admix-
ture with the other fluids until absorption has taken place.
By standing at rest the separation mentioned above is
evident and perfect.

It has been supposed that the mucus of the intestines
has some agency in the formation of chyle. But I
am disposed to think with Professor Dunglison and
others, that the use of the mucus is to lubricate the in-
ternal coat of the intestines, and perhaps to dilute their
contents.

It has been suggested that digestion can be perfected
in the duodenum and lower bowels when the food has
not been submitted to the action of the stomach and its
fluids. In two experiments by Magendie, one failed, and
the other was attended with partial success. Too much
reliance ought not to be placed on experiments that re-
quire such severe and cruel vivisections as were resorted
to in these cases. It is possible, as suggested by Dun-
glison, that the presence of crude aliment in the duo-
denum may excite the discharge of gastric juice in the
stomach, its expulsion into the duodenum, and its conse-
quent action on the food, before it is affected by the bile
and pancreatic juice. Or it may be that the upper part

CHANGE WHICH OCCURS IN DUODENUM. 113

of the duodenum is furnished with vessels which secrete
a fluid similar to gastric juice.

Experiments have also been instituted with the view
of ascertaining whether chyle can be formed without the
admixture of the hepatic and pancreatic fluids with vari-
ous results. Brodie ascertained, bj' tying the ductus
communis choledochus in young cats, that the process of
chylification was prevented, and that no chyle was found
in the intestines. Magendie, Leuret, and Lassaigne, on
tying this duct, discovered matter of " a rosy yellow co-
lour," which afforded, on analysis, the same constituents
of chyle, although the animals which were the subjects
of the operation had been kept some time without food.
There is certainly an apparent discordance in these re-
ports. But it is possible they may be explained and
reconciled. It is well known that the absorbents are ac-
tive during a protracted fast (as in these last experi-
ments), and are constantly taking up the cellular sub-
stance, for the purpose of supplying the bloodvessels
with these broken-up solids of the system. Emaciation
is the effect of absorption. The lacteals, like other ab-
sorbents, have undoubtedly their appropriate stimulus ;
but, if that be withholden, they will feed on other sub-
stances, the cellular and other solid parts within their
reach. If such be the case, it will account for the rosy-
coloured fluid found in the lacteals by Magendie and
others.

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS, &c.

EXPERIMENTS, &a

FIRST SERIES.

EXPERIMENT 1.

August 1. 1825 — At 12 o'clock, a.m., I introduced
through the perforation, into the stomach, the following
articles of diet, suspended by a silk string, and fastened
at proper distances, so as to pass in without pain — viz. :
— a piece of high seasoned a la mode beef, a piece of raio
salted fat pork, a piece of raw salted lean beef, a piece
of boiled salted beef a piece of stale bread, and a bunch
of raw sliced cabbage ; each piece weighing about two
drachms ; the lad continuing his usual employment about
the house.

At 1 o'clock, P.M., withdrew and examined them —
found the cabbage and bread about half digested ; the
pieces of meat unchanged. Returned them into the
stomach.

At 2 o'clock, P.M. withdrew them again — found the
cabbage, bread, pork, and boiled beef all cleanly digest-
ed,* and gone from the string ; the other pieces of meat

* These experiments are inserted here, as they were originally
taken down in my note-book, with very little alteration of phraseo-

118 EXPERIMENTS ON THE DIGESTION

but very little affected. Returned them into the stomach
again.

At 2 o'clock P.M.* examined again — ^found the a-la-
mode-beef partly digested ; the raw beef was slightly
macerated on the surface, but its general texture was firm
and entire. The smell and taste of the fluids of the sto-
mach were slightly rancid ; and the boy complained of
some pain and uneasiness at the breast. Returned them
again.

The lad complaining of considerable distress and un-
easiness at the stomach, general debility and lassitude,
with some pain in his head, I withdrew the string, and
found the remaining portions of aliment nearly in the
same condition as when last examined ; the fluid more
rancid and sharp. The boy still complaining, I did not
return them any more.

August 2. — The distress at the stomach and pain in
the head continuing, accompanied with costiveness, a
depressed pulse, dry skin, coated tongue, and numerous
white spots, or pustules, resembHng coagulated lymph,
spread over the inner surface of the stomach, I thought
it advisable to give medicine ; and, accordingly, dropped
into the stomach, through the aperture, half a dozen
calomel pills ^ four or five grains each; which, in about
three hours, had a thorough cathartic effect, and removed

logy, and none of the sense. Subsequent experiments have some-
times convinced me of errors in former ones. When this has been
the case, I have generally made the corrections in the way of re-
marks, or observations, as in this experiment.

• There is evidently an error in repeating the same hour here ;
but it is impossible to correct it — Editor.

OF A MIXED MEAL. 119

all the foregoing symptoms, and the diseased appearance
of the inner coat of the stomach. The effect of the me-
dicine was the same as when administered in the usual
way, by the mouth and oesophagus, except the nausea
commonly occasioned by swallowing pills.

Remarks, — This experiment cannot be considered afair
test of the powers of the gastric juice. The cabbage, one of
the articles which was, in this instance, most speedily dis-
solved, was cut into small fibrous pieces, very thin, and
necessarily exposed on all its surfaces to the action of the
gastric juice. The stale bread was porous, and, of course,
admitted the juice into all its interstices ; and probably
fell from the string as soon as softened, and before it was
completely dissolved. These circumstances will account
for the more rapid disappearance of these substances,
than of the pieces of meat, which were in entire solid
pieces when put in. To account for the disappearance
of the fat pork, it is only necessary to remark, that the
fat of meat is always resolved into oil, by the warmth of
the stomach, before it is digested. I have generally ob-
served that when he has fed on fat meat or butter, the
whole superior portion of the contents of the stomach, if
examined a short time after eating, will be found covered
with an oily pellicle. This fact may account for the dis-
appearance of the pork fi-om the string. I think, upon
the whole, and subsequent experiments have confirmed
the opinion, that fat meats are less easily digested than
lean, when both have received the same advantages of
comminution. Generally speaking, the looser the tex-

120 EXPERIMENTS ON

ture, and the more tender the fibre, of animal food, the
easier it is of digestion.

This experiment is important, in a pathological point
of view. It confirms the opinion, that undigested por-
tions of food in the stomach produce all the phenomena
of fever ; and is calculated to vrarn us of the danger of
all excesses, where that organ is concerned. It also ad-
monishes us of the necessity of a perfect comminution of
the articles of diet.

EXPERIMENT 2.

August 7. — At 11 o'clock, a.m., after having kept the
lad fasting for seventeen hours, I introduced the glass -
tube of a thermometer (Fahrenheit's) through *the perfo-
ration, into the stomach, nearly the whole length of the
stem, to ascertain the natural warmth of the stomach. In
fifteen minutes, or less, the mercury rose to 100°, and
there remained stationary. This I determined by mark-
ing the height of the mercury on the glass with ink, as
it stood in the stomach, and then withdrawing it, and
placing it on the graduated scale again.

I now introduced a gum-elastic (caoutchouc) tube, and
drew off one ounce of pure gastric liquor, unmixed with
any other matter, except a small proportion of mucus,
into a three ounce vial. I then took a solid piece of
boiled^ recently salted beef, weighing three drachms, and
put it into the liquor in the vial ; corked the vial tight,
and placed it in a saucepan filled with water, raised to
the temperature of 100°, and kept at that point, on a
nicely regulated sand-bath. In forty minutes digestion
had distinctly commenced over the surface of the meat

DIGESTION OUT OF THE STOMACH. 121

\xi fifty minutes the fluid had become quite opaque and
cloudy ; the external texture began to separate and be-
come loose. In sixty minutes chyme began to form.

At 1 o'clock p. M. (digestion having progressed with
the same regularity as in the last half hour), the cellular
texture seemed to be entirely destroyed, leaving the
muscular fibres loose and unconnected, floating about in
fine small shreds, very tender and soft. At 3 o'clock, the
muscular fibres had diminished one half, since last exa-
mination at 1 o'clock. At 5 o'clock, they were nearly all
digested ; a few fibres only remaining. At 7 o'clock, the
muscular texture was completely broken down, and only
a few of the small fibres floating in the fluid. At 9 o'clock,
every part of the meat was completely digested.

The gastric juice, when taken from the stomach, was
as clear and transparent as water. The mixture in the
vial was now about the colour of whey. After standing
at rest a few minutes, a fine sediment of the colour of the
meat subsided to the bottom of the vial. ^

Experiment 3.

August 7. At 1 1 A. M. I suspended a piece of heej\
exactly similar to that in the vial (Ex. 2.), into the sto-
mach, through the aperture. At 12 o'clock m. withdrew
it, and found it as much affected by digestion as that in
the vial ; there was little or no difference in their appear-
ance. Returned it again. At 1 o'clock p.m. I drew
out the string, but the meat was all completely digested
and gone.

122 EXPERIMENTS ON

Remarks. — The effect of the gastric juice on the piece of
meat suspended in the stomach, was exactly similar to that
in the vial, only more rapid after the first half hour, and
sooner completed. Digestion commenced on, and was
confined to, the surface entirely in both situations. Agi-
tation accelerated the solution in the vial, by removing
the coat that was digested on the surface, enveloping the
remainder of the meat in the gastric fluid, and giving this
fluid access to the undigested portions.

Experiment 4.

August 8. — At 9 o'clock a.m., I drew off an ounce
and a half of gastric juice into a three ounce vial, sus-
pended two pieces of boiled chicken, from the breast and
back, into it, and placed it in the same situation and tem-
perature as in the second experiment, observing the
same regularity and minuteness.

Digestion commenced and progressed much the same
as in the second experiment, but rather slower : Xhefowl
appearing to be more difficult of digestion than thejiesk.
The texture of the chicken being closer than that of the
beef, the gastric juice appeared not to insinuate itself into
the interstices of the muscular fibre so readily as into the
beef, but operated entirely upon the outer surface, dis-
solving it as a piece of gum-arabic is dissolved in the
mouth, until the List particle was digested.

The colour of the fluid, after digesting the chicken,
was of a greyish-white, and more resembled a milky fluid
than whey, which was the colour of the chyme from the
beef.

DIGESTION OUT OF THE STOMACH. 123

The contents of both vials, kept perfectly tight, re-
mained free from any fcetor, acidity, or offensive smell
or taste, from the time of the experiments (7th and 8th
August) to the 6th of September ; at which time, that
containing the solution of boiled beefhecdime very offen-
sive and putrid ; while that containing the chyme from
the boiled chicken was perfectly bland and sweet. Both
were kept in exactly similar situations.

Remarks. — It is perhaps unnecessary to make any com-
ments on the result of the above experiments. Each one
will make up his opinion from the facts. These demonstrate,
at least, that the stomach secretes a fluid which possesses
solvent properties. The change in the solid substances
is effected too rapidly to be accounted for on the princi-
ple of either maceration or putrefaction. I shall be able
to shew, in some of the following experiments, that ali-
ment undergoes the same changes in the stomach as are
effected in the mode here adopted.

The young man who was the subject of these experi-
ments, left me about this time (September 1825) and
went to Canada, the place of his former residence. The
experiments were consequently suspended.

( 124 )

SECOND SERIES.

Fort Crawford, Upper Mississippi,
^■^71^20. 1829.

Alexis St Martin having returned from Canada,
after an absence of nearly four years, with his stomach
in the same or very similar condition as when he left me
in September 1825, I continued to prosecute the gastric
experiments which were commenced before he left me.

With a view to ascertain the variations of temperature,
if any there were, in the interior of the stomach, under
different circumstances and conditions of the system, and
vicissitudes of the atmosphere, I instituted the following
experiments.

Experiment 1.

December 6. 1829. At 9 o'clock a.m. I introduced
the glass-tube of a thermometer (Fahrenheit's) through
the artificial opening into the stomach, in a healthy and
empty condition, nearly the whole length of the stem. In
six or eight minutes, the mercury became stationary at
98°. Weather cloudy, damp, and almost raining ; ground
wet, muddy, and thawing. Wind south and mild. Ther-
mometer, in a north exposure, 63°. Commenced rain-

ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE STOMACH. 125

ing at 1 1 o'clock a. m. and continued all day, with op-
pressive atmosphere.

Experiment 2.

December "J. — Introduced thermometer at the same
hour as yesterday — circumstances of stomach the same.
Mercury at 98°. Weather cloudy ; atmosphere damp ;
wind N. W. and light ; thermometer 27°.

Experiment 3.
December 8. — Introduced thermometer at 9 o'clock
A. m. — circumstances of stomach same as yesterday.
Mercury stationary at 99°. Weather clear ; atmosphere
dry ; wind S. W. and light ; thermometer 13°.

Experiment 4.

December 9. — Introduced thermometer at 9 o'clock,
A. M — circumstances similar. Mercury stationary at 99°-
Weather clear ; atmosphere dry ; wind W. and light ;
thermometer 10°.

Experiment 5.

January 24. 1830. — Introduced thermometer at 3
o'clock p. m. Weather clear and cold ; thermometer 8°
below 0 ; wind N. W. and light ; stomach empty and
coats healthy. Mercury stationary at 100°.

Experiment 6.

January 25. — Introduced thermometer at 8 o'clock
a.m. Weather clear; wind S. W. and light; thermo-
meter 2° ; stomach empty. Mercury stationary at 100°.

126 ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE STOMACH.

At 10 o'clock A.M. (one hour after eating a breakfast
of pork and bread) introduced thermometer again. Mer-
cury stationary at 100°, as at 9 o'clock, before eating.

Experiment 7.

March 17. — At 10 o'clock a.m. introduced thermo-
meter. Weather rainy and foggy ; wind S. W. and
Hght ; thermometer 38° ; stomach empty, having eaten
nothing since 7 o'clock last evening. Mercury station-
ary at 99°.

Experiment 8.

March 18. — At 8 o'clock a. m. introduced thermo-
meter. Mercury stationary at 1 00°. Weather clear ;
wind N. W. ; thermometer 6°.

At 9 o'clock, breakfasted on meat, biscuit, and butter
with coffee. Temperature of the stomach, immediately
before eating, 100° ; thirty minutes after finishing break-
&st, the temperature had risen to 102°. Digestion ra-
pidly advancing.

Remarks. — It appears, from the above experiments, that
the variations of the atmosphere produce effects upon the
temperature of the stomach, — a dry atmosphere increasing,
and a humid one diminishing it. What would be the effect
of copious perspiration, in warm weather, on the tempe-
rature of the stomach ? Would that of the interior of
this organ be lessened by evaporation ? I regret that
sufficient experiments have not been made fully to satisfy
these inquiries. From one or tv*^o experiments, it would

SUPPOSED ACCUMULATION OF GASTRIC JUICE. 127

seem that the heat of the stomach was increased during
the active period of digestion. This, however, was pro-
bably owing to exercise immediately after eating, though
not particularly observed and noted at the time. Subse-
quent experiments have not shewn this result. On the
contrary, the temperature has been found to be the same
in its full and empty state.

The ordinary temperature of the healthy stomach may
be fairly estimated at 100° Fahrenheit. Some allowance
ought probably to be made in these experiments for im-
perfect instruments. It appears, from subsequent exami-
nations, that there is probably some difference of tempe-
rature in different regions of the stomach, it being higher
at the pyloric than at the splenic end. See subsequent
experiments and observations.

To ascertain whether the gastric juice be accumulated
in the stomach during periods of fasting, or even from
the immediate and direct influence of hunger, I made the
following experiments.

Experiment 9.
December 5. 1829. — At 8 o'clock a. m., after twelve
hours' abstinence from either food or drinks, I introduced,
at the perforation, a gum-elastic tube, and drew off a
drachm or two only of the gastric juice. There was no
accumulation in the stomach.

Experiment 10.

December 12 At 3 o'clock p. m. introduced tube ;

could procure two or three drachms only ; this was se-

128 EXPERIMENTS ON THE SUPPOSED

creted on the irritation of the tube. Stomach contained
none in a free state.

Experiment 11.

December 14. — At 10 o'clock P. m., after eighteen
hours' fasting, introduced tube and drew off one and a
half ounces of gastric juice. It was clear, and almost
transparent ; tasted a little saltish and acid when applied
to the tongue, similar to thin mucilage of gum-arabic,
slightly acidulated with muriatic acid. There was no ac-
cumulation in the stomach when the tube was intro-
duced.

Experiment 12.

March 13. 1830 At 10 o'clock a. m. stomach

empty ; introduced tube, but was unable to obtain any
gastric juice. On the application of a few crumbs of
bread to the inner surface of the stomach, the juice be-
gan slowly to accumulate, and flow through the tube.
The crumbs of bread adhered to the mucous coat, soon
became soft, and began to dissolve and digest. On view-
ing the villous membrane before applying the bread
crumbs, the mucous coat and subjacent follicles only
could be observed ; but, immediately afterwards, small
sharp papillae, and minute lucid points, situated in the in-
terstices of, and less than, the mucous follicles, became
visible, from which exuded a clear transparent liquor. It
then began to run through the tube.

Experiment 13.
March 18 — At 6 o'clock p. m., after fasting from 8

ACCUMULATION OF GASTRIC JUICE. 129

o'clock, A. M.j introduced tube ; obtained one and a half
ounces gastric juice, after having kept up the irritation
by moving the tube from point to point for twelve or fif-
teen minutes. No accumulation of free juice in the sto-
mach.

Experiment 14.

January 26. 1 831. — At 9 o'clock a. m. stomach empty ;

extracted one ounce gastric juice slowly through the tube,

with the usual admixture of mucus. Introduced food,

and it began directly to flow more freely through the tube.

Experiment 15.

January 27. — At 8 o'clock a. m. — stomach empty ;
introduced elastic tube, and obtained one and a half
drachms of gastric juice by very slow distillation. Ap-
plied crumbs of bread to the villous coat, and the juice
began immediately to flow freely through the tube.

Experiment 16.

March 6 — At 8 o'clock a. m., extracted two ounces
gastric juice, and added it to two ounces of Madeira
wine. No visible change was produced ; no coagulse
formed. They united like pure water and wine. Heat
produced no other effect.

Experiment 17.

March 7. — At 6 o'clock p. m. stomach empty ; ex-
tracted one and a half ounces of juice, and mixed it with
the same quantity of Jamaica spirits. Effect same as
with wine.

130 SUPPOSED ACCUMULATION OF GASTRIC JUICE.

Experiment IS.

March 8.— At 8 o'clock a. m. stomach empty ; ex-
tracted one and a half ounces of gastric juice.

Experiment 19.

March 12. — At 9 o'clock a. m. stomach empty; ex-
tracted one and a half ounces of gastric juice. Put
this in a bottle.

Experiment 20.

March 1 3 — At 1 1 o'clock a. m. stomach empty ; ex-
tracted two ounces of juice.

Experiment 21.

March 14 — At 12 o'clock a.m. stomach empty; ex-
tracted two ounces of juice.

Experiment 22.

March 15 — At 4 o'clock, p.m. stomach empty; ex-
tracted one and a half ounces gastric juice.

Experiment 23.

March 1 6 At 5 o'clock p. m. introduced tube ;

could obtain no clear gastric juice. A little acrid fluid
and frothy mucus only could be extracted. Villous mem-
brane red and dry. St Martin complained of some headach,
pain and distress about the scrobiculus cordis, lassitude and
loss of appetite. Directed him to take half an ounce o^ tinc-
ture of aloes and myrrh at 9 o'clock p. m. This moved his
bowels several times next morning. Little or no change

REFLECTIONS ON THESE EXPERIMENTS. 131

was apparent in the appearance of the inner coat of the
stomach ; if any, it was a Httle more moist, and a shade
paler, after the operation of the tincture. Gastric juice
could again be obtained, but in less than usual quantity.

Remarks. — It would seem from the preceding experi-
ments, that the stomach contains no gastric juice in a free
state, when aliment is not present. Any digestible or
irritating substance, when applied to the internal coat, ex-
cites the action of the gastric vessels. Hence, I infer
that the fluid, in these experiments, was incited to dis-
charge itself by the irritation of the tube used in extract-
ing it.

If, as is contended for by some, a part of the fluid be
discharged into the stomach during a fast, I see no rea-
son why nature should withhold the other part. If we
may be allowed to argue, independent of more certain
data, one great objection to the opinion that the stomach
contains gastric juice, in a free state, when food is with-
holden from it, exists in the danger of its passing out
through the pyloric orifice, and thus depriving the suc-
ceeding meal of the benefit of its solvent action. It is
probable that the pyloric orifice opposes no resistance to
its egress, but is obedient to its summons. In this way
we may account for its admitting chyme, which is an ad-
mixture, or rather combination, of gastric juice and food
to obey the expulsive motions of the stomach and pass
out. They both appear to excite the peculiar contrac-
tion of the pyloric end of the stomach, mentioned in a for-
mer part of this work. Besides, there would be danger

132 ARTIFICIAL DIGESTION.

of the gastric juice being weakened by the introduction
of large quantities of water or other fluids in the inter-
vals of eating, and thus lose its energy and concentrated
solvent properties.

The last experiment has considerable pathological im-
portance. In febrile diathesis very little or no gastric
juice is secreted. Hence the importance of withholding
food from the stomach in febrile complaints. It can af-
ford no nourishment, but is actually a source of irrita-
tion to that organ ; and, consequently, to the whole sys-
tem. No solvent can be secreted under these circum-
stances, and food is as insoluble in the stomach as lead
would be under ordinary circumstances.

The following, and most of the subsequent experiments
of this series, were instituted with the view of ascertain-
ing the relative difference between natural and artificial
digestion ; to demonstrate the performance of digestion
out of the stomach, by the gastric juice ; and, also, the
continuation of the natural process, when taken out du-
ring the period of chymification.

EXPERIMENT 24.

December 14. 1829 At 1 o'clock, p.m., I took one

and a half ounces of gastric juice, fresh from the stomach,
after eighteen hours fasting, into an open mouthed vial,
put into it twelve drachms recently salted beef (boiled),
and placed it in a basin of water, on a sand-bath, and
kept it at about 100° (Fahrenheit) with frequent gentle

ARTIFICIAL DIGESTION. 133

agitation. Digestion commenced in a short time on the
surface of the meat, and progressed in that manner uni-
formly for about six hours, when its solvent action seemed
to cease. The meat was at this time nearly half dissolved ;
the texture of the central portion considerably loosened
and tender, resembling the same kind of aliment when
ejected, partly digested, from the stomach, some hours
after being swallowed, as frequently seen in cases of in-
digestion.

The vial, continuing in the same situation, its contents
varied considerably in their sensible qualities. In twenty-
four hours, the digested portion separated into a reddish-
brown precipitate, and whey-coloured fluid.

I now separated the undigested from the chymous por-
tion, by filtration, through thin muslin. When squeezed
dry, it weighed five drachms, two scruples, and eight
grains, which, deducted from the twelve drachms of meat
put in at first, leaves six drachms and twelve grains, di-
gested in twelve fluid drachms of gastric juice.

This experiment was conducted with as much precision
and integrity of observation as possible, with the tempe-
rature of the digesting bath kept as near blood heat as was
practicable to regulate and continue artificial warmth, the
thermometer varying during the time, fi'om90° to 100°.

In this experiment, it appears that it took twelve
drachms of gastric juice to digest six drachms and twelve
grains of aliment. No certain rule can, however, be
given. Allowance must be made for the purity of the
fluid, or its admixture with mucus and other secretions ;
for it is altogether probable that there are great varia-

134 ARTIFICIAL DIGESTION.

tions in it, in this respect, as well as in all the other se-
cretions of the system. It is probable, also, that differ-
ent kinds of diet require different proportions of gastric
juice for their solution. That its action is similar to that
of other chemical agents, I have no doubt. A given
quantity ofthejftuid acts on a definite proportioii of ali-
ment, when it becomes saturated, and is inadequate to
produce any further effect. There is always disturbance
of the stomach when more food has been received than
there is gastric juice to act upon it.

EXPERIMENT 25.

December 16. At 2 o'clock, p. m Twenty minutes

after having eaten an ordinary dinner of boiled salted
beef bread, potatoes, and turnips, and drank a gill only
of pure ivater, I took from his stomach, through the ar-
tificial opening, a gill of the contents, into an open
mouthed vial. Digestion had evidently commenced, and
was perceptibly progressing at the time. This vial and
contents were immediately placed in a basin of water, on
the sand-bath, at 90° or 100°, and continued there for
five hours. The digestion of the contents continued to
progress until all was completely chymified.

At 7 o'clock — five hours after eating his dinner — I
took out a gill of pure chyme ; no particles of undigested
food appearing in the mixture. Very little difference was
perceptible between this last parcel and that in the vial,
digesting on the bath. The stomach had digested a little
faster and more perfectly than the vial.

FOOD DIGESTED WHEN TAKEN FROM STOMACH. 135

JRemarks. — In this experiment, it seems, that a quantity
of aUment taken out of the stomach twenty minutes after
having been eaten, had a sufficient admixture of gastric
juice to ensure its perfect digestion when placed on the
bath. An ordinary moderate meal, taken into a healthy
stomach, is sooner disposed of than most physiologists are
aware of ; and in this case, it is probable that a sufficient
quantity of gastric juice had been secreted in twenty mi-
nutes, to digest the whole quantity of aliment in the sto-
mach. When a large quantity has been received, though
the powers of the stomach may be sufficient, ultimately,
to dispose of it, it would undoubtedly be found that a por-
tion taken from the stomach a few minutes after having
been eaten, would not contain a sufficient quantity of gas-
tric juice to digest it perfectly. It is possible that the
portion presented at the perforation may be in a more
advanced stage of digestion than the rest of the mass, and
consequently lighter, and float on the surface of the more
solid portions of the food. In ordinary cases, such would
be found to be the case ; but when much fat meat or oily
food has been used, the oil always maintains an ascen-
dancy in the gastric cavity.

EXPERIMENT 26.

January 1 1 . 1830. — At 3 o'clock, p. m., dined on bread
and eight ounces oi recently salted lean beef, four ounces
o^ potatoes, and four ounces of turnips, boiled. In fifteen
minutes, took out a portion of the contents of the stomach.
The meat made its appearance in an incipient state of
digestion.

136 DIGESTION IN AND OUT OP THE

At 3 o'clock 45 minutes, took out another portion.
The meat and bread only appeared, in a still more ad-
vanced stage of digestion. The texture of the meat was,
at this time, broken into small shreds, soft and pulpy, and
the fluid containing it had become more opaque,^ and
quite gruel-like, or rather glutinous, in appearance. I
put this second parcel in a vial, and placed it in water,
on the sand-bath, at the temperature of the stomach
(100° Fahrenheit) as indicated by the thermometer im-
mediately preceding its extraction, and continued it there.

At 5 o'clock, took out another quantity. Digestion
had advanced in about the same ratio as from the first to
the second time of extracting ; and when compared with
the second parcel, contained in the vial on the bath, little
or no difference could be perceived in them ; both were
nearly in the same stage of digestion. That contained
in the vial had advanced regularly and rapidly ; nearly
all the particles of meat had disappeared, become chymi-
fied, and changed into a reddish-brown sediment, sus-
pended in the more fluid parts, with small particles, re-
sembling loose white coagulae, floating about near the
surface.

On taking out the third parcel, small pieces of vege-
tables appeared, in a partial stage of digestion. This was
also put into a vial, and placed on a bath, with the second
parcel, and the same uniform temperature (100°) kept
up, with frequent gentle agitation. At 6 o'clock, p.m.,
digestion had progressed equally in both. The only dif-
ference to be seen, was the particles of vegetables, in a
less advanced stage than the meat.

STOMACH COMPARED. 137

The contents of both vials, kept on the bath, and nearly
in the same temperature, until the next morning, were
completely digested, except the few small particles of
vegetables which remained almost entire. The contents
of the vials at this time, were of the consistence of thin
jelly, and of a lightish-brown colour ; tasting peculiarly
insipid, saltish and acid. After standing at rest awhile,
the brownish sediment subsided towards the bottom, while
small particles of whitish coloured loose coagulae floated
about in the fluid above. The undigested particles of
vegetables settled to the bottom.

Remarks — In the Preliminary Observations, I have en-
deavoured to maintain the proposition, that chyme is homo-
geneous in its properties. It would seem from this and
some other experiments, that it contains a sediment. This,
however, it is believed, does not militate against its ho-
mogeneous character. Many substances, that are gene-
rally acknowledged to possess this character, deposit a
sediment, on standing. The heavier parts subside, of
course. It is not necessary to cite examples. It is pos-
sible, also, that mixed food contains some adventitious,
indigestible substances, which are not affected by the
gastric juice.

This experiment (26th) demonstrates the comparative
digestibility of animal and vegetable diet. In extracting
two parcels, one in fifteen minutes, and the other in three
quarters of an hour, the meat only made its appearance,
partially digested. In taking out a third portion, at 5
o'clock, two hours after being eaten, small particles of

138 DIGESTIBILITY OF MEAT AND VEGETABLES.

vegetables made their appearance. This experiment ap-
pears to confirm the opinion, pretty generally entertained
by medical men, that vegetables are less easily disposed
of by the gastric organs, than animal or farinaceous sub-
stances. With dyspeptics this is undoubtedly true, as
experience every day teaches us ; and as their stomachs
have the same organization as others, are governed by
the same general laws, and are only modified by debility
or disease, the conclusion is natural, that they should act
on aliment in the same manner, in proportion to their
strength, that the healthy stomach does.

It may be inferred from this experiment, that the more
perfectly chymified portions of food rise to the superior
part of the stomach, as suggested in a previous obser-
vation, and are consequently exposed at the perforation,
fi'om whence parcels are taken for experiment and exa-
mination.

Experiment 27.

March 17. At 12 o'clock, m drank half a pint of

milk. In fifteen minutes, took a portion out of the sto-
mach, in a fine, loosely coagulated condition, perfectly
white, and suspended in a semi-transparent, whey-colour-
ed fluid. I placed this on the bath, and it continued to
digest for eight hours, when the coagulae were completely
taken up. A very small proportion of light-coloured se-
diment, settled loosely to the bottom of a cream-coloured
sweetish fluid.

At the same time that he drank the milk, I put one
drachm of gastric juice, warm from the stomach, into twe»

DIGESTION OF MILK. 139

drachms of tnilky and placed it on the bath, at the natu-
ral temperature (100° Fahrenheit). In five minutes,
pure white coagulae formed, which, in fifteen minutes,
exactly resembled that taken out of the stomach. In
twenty minutes, the same fine, loose coagulae were sus-
pended in a similar liquid. These two drachms of milk,
mixed with one drachm of pure gastric juice, out of the
stomach, gave the same result, and exhibited the same
appearance, in nearly the same time as that which was
swallowed, and taken from the stomach. Scarcely a
shade of difference could be perceived in four hours.

Two drachms of milk, coagulated by acetous acid, pro-
duced coagulae very similar to the other; but the wheyey
part bore no resemblance, except in mere fluidity ; that
formed from the gastric fluid being of an opaline, slight-
ly yellowish cast, and the other thin, transparent, and
watery.

The coagulae formed by the gastric juice continued
to digest regularly in their fluid, for about eight hours,
when they were completely taken up, and converted into
chyme. But the coagulae formed by the vinegar remain-
ed in the same condition for forty-eight hours, with no
other change except mere subsidence below the watery
fluid.

Remarks. — It is well known, and this experiment was
not necessary to prove it, that milk is coagulated before it
receives the solvent action of the gastric juice. But it has
some degree of importance in demonstrating the fact, that
a degree of solidity is necessary for the operation of this

140 PROGRESS OF DIGESTION

agent. And it is a strong argument against the doctrine
of digestion by the veins of the stomach. It has been
maintained by some, that the veins take up the nutri-
tious parts of the food, immediately on their introduction
into the stomach. If so, it strikes me that they should
do so, as it relates to this kind of aliment, while they are
in a fluid state, and more susceptible of absorption by their
mouths ; and not wait till they have become solidified.
Wine, spirits, water, and other fluids, which conduce
nothing towards alimentation, are neither coagulated, nor
otherwise affected by the gastric juice. These fluids are
not digested ; and probably enter the circulatory system
without much change.

It will be seen, by succeeding experiments, that other
fluid, nutritive substances, particularly the albumen of
eggs, are coagulated before they receive the solvent ac-
tion of the gastric juice.

Experiment 28.

Jan, 25. 1831. At 1 o'clock, p. m., he ate a full din-
ner of roast beefy potatoes^ heets^ and bread, and kept ex-
ercising about his usual employment, as house servant.
'^^Jri^.^ „.v^t 5 o'clock, 25 mins., Itook out a portion of the con-
\t^^^ tents of the stomach. Digestion of the different articles
of food had commenced, and considerably advanced.
" A>^ %. '^^^ bread, reduced to a pultaceous condition, appeared
v^ ' floating about in a reddish-brown fluid, of a glutinous
consistence. A i^w small particles of the meat could
also be seen in the fluid. None of the vegetables were
discernible at this time. The fluids tasted slightly acid.

Smw<»>''

EXHIBITED BY EXPERIMENT. 141

giving the flavour peculiar to dilute muriatic acid, and
very slightly bitter. A few grains of carbonate of soda,
thrown into a drachm or two of this fluid, produced a
slight effervescence.

At 4 o'clock, 20 mins took out another portion, a

shade or two darker than the first. This dark colour of
the chyme, I attributed to his having taken with his din-
ner, some of the outside, scorched pieces of the beef.
No distinct parts of the food could be seen at this time.
Upon the surface of both parcels of fluids, floated a layer,
of an oily or lardaceous consistence, which probably was
the remains of the fat pork which he had eaten for his
breakfast. The first parcel contained much more of this
oily fluid than the last ; which leads me to think that a
considerable portion of an imperfect chyme, formed from
the pork taken at about 10 o'clock, for breakfast, remain-
ed in his stomach when he ate his dinner ; and then
mixed with this aliment, in an imperfect state of diges-
tion.

At 5 o'clock, 30 mins. — tried to extract another por-
tion— could obtain nothing, except a little gastric juice.
The chyme formed from his dinner appeared to have all
passed from the stomach.

Experiment 29.

March 6. At 9 o'clock a. m. — breakfasted on venison
steaky cranberry jelly and bread, and drank a pint o^ coffee.
Twenty minutes after eating, I took a portion from the
stomach, in an incipient stage of digestion. Placed this
on the bath.

142 DIGESTION OF ALBUMEN AND EGG.

At 9 o'clock, 45 mins. — I took another portion, in an
advanced state of digestion — very few small particles of

food were discernible. At 10 o'clock, 10 mins took

out another portion, perfectly chymified. At 10 o'clock,
35 mins. — the stomach was entirely empty and clean —
no chyme or aliment to be found in it. The breakfast,
eaten at 9 o'clock, was all digested, and had passed
through the pylorus, in one hour and thirty-five minutes.

Remarks. — This is an example of the great rapidity of di-
gestion in some instances. This rapidity depends upon vari-
ous circumstances — principally upon moderation in quan-
tity, and the digestible properties of the food used. From
various trials, I am confident, generally speaking, that ve-
nison is the most digestible of any diet of the fibrinous
kind. In a few instances, it will be perceived, that other
articles of diet were disposed of in a shorter period, than
the venison was in this experiment.

Experiment 30.

March 7. Mixed two drachms of albumen of a fresh
^^^t with two drachms of gastric juice, warm from the
stomach, and placed it on the bath, at the natural tem-
perature. The juice and the albumen were so much
alike in their appearance, when first mixed, that the
change was not perceptible ; but in ten or fifteen mi-
nutes, small white flocculi began to appear, floating about;
and the mixture became of an opaque and whitish ap-
pearance. This continued slowly and uniformly to in-
crease, for three hours, at which time, the fluid had be-

PROGRESS OF DIGESTION. 143

come of a milky appearance ; the small flocculi, or loose
coagulae, had mostly disappeared, and a little light co-
loured sediment subsided to the bottom.

At the same time of the above experiment, he swal-
lowed the white of two eggs, unmixed with any other
food. The stomach was perfectly empty at the time.
In thirty minutes, . I took out and examined a portion.
It exhibited a similar appearance to that mixed out of
the stomach, in the vial on the bath, only more rapid in
its progress.

In one hour and thirty minutes, I examined the cavity
of the stomach, and found nothing but a little pure gastric
juice. The albumen was completely digested and dis-
posed of.

EXPERIMENT 31.

March 9 — At 8 o'clock, a. m. — Stomach empty — tem-
perature 98° — took out two ounces gastric juice. Di-
vided this into two equal parts, and put them into sepa-
rate vials, to each of which I put equal quantities of
roasted beef, placed one of them on the bath, at 99°? and
the other in the open air, at 34°. I then put the same
quantity of the meat into an equal quantity of clear water,
and placed it with the cold gastric juice and meat, in the
open air, at the same temperature.

At 9 o'clock he had finished breakfasting on the same
kind of meat, with the addition of warm light biscuit,
butter, and a pint of coffee. Temperature of the stomach,
immediately 5e/ore eating, 100°. In thirty minutes o/^er

144 PROGRESS OF DIGESTION IN

eating, the temperature rose to 102°.* Digestion rapidly
advancing.

At 10 o'clock — took out a portion, partially digested ;
the biscuit the most so of any part of the breakfast.
Placed this on the bath. The meat contained in the
vial of gastric juice on the bath, was, at this time, in
about the same condition as that taken from the stomach ;
very little difference could be perceived. The biscuit
which he had eaten with his breakfast occasioned the only
diflPerence ; that being reduced to a soft pulp. The meat
in the cold gastric juice was, at this time, much less ad-
vanced than either that in the warm juice, or in the por-
tion taken from the stomach. That contained in the
vial of water was merely macerated, and had no more
appearance of digestion than what was effected by its
being masticated, and mixed with the saliva, as were the
other pieces of meat, before they were put into the gas-
tric juice.

At 10 o'clock, 45 minutes, I examined the stomach,
but could find no distinct particles of food, and but very
little chyme. His breakfast appeared to have been com-
pletely digested, and had left the stomach. Temperature
100°.

At 2 o'clock, p. M., the several parcels of meat placed
in the gastric juice, on the bath, being about half digested,
and appearing not to progress, I drew off twelve drachms
of gastric juice from the empty stomach, and added four
drachms to each, including the parcel taken from the
* Probably the effect of exercise, but not noticed at the time.

And OtJT OF TttE STOMACH. 145

Stomach, at 10 o'clock, a.m., that being in about the
same state of chymification with the others on the bath.

I continued the two on the bath, at 100°, and the
others (cold gastric and aqueous fluids) on the shelf, at
34°. Digestion evidently recommenced in the parcels
on the bath, and again regularly progressed, after the ad-
dition of the second portions of the gastric juice ; and
more rapidly in the vial containing the meat digesting in
the gastric juice, taken out of the stomach first, than in
the one containing the chymous portion, taken out at 10
o'clock A. M., one hour after having eaten. This parcel
however, contained a solid piece of meat, which appeared
to have been swallowed without being masticated ; and
consequently, did not readily yield to the solvent action
of the gastric juice. The juice was, also, in too small
proportion completely to digest it.

The vials containing the cold aqueous and gastric por-
tions, placed on the shelf, were, at 4 o'clock, p. m., but
very little changed, and much alike.

These four parcels, after standing for twenty-four hours,
and all suffered to get cool, exhibited the following ap-
pearances : — The portion taken from the stomach at 10
o'clock, A.M., one hour after having eaten, was the most
perfectly digested, and completely converted into a thick
pultaceous mass, of a reddish brown colour, with the ex-
ception of the piece of unmasticated meat, which re-
mained entire and undigested. This emitted a sharp
rancid smell, and was slightly bitter. The vial contain-
ing the meat digesting in the gastric juice first taken out
of the stomach, exhibited appearances very similar to the

146 INFLUENCE OF HEAT ON DIGESTION.

last, though the contents were less perfectly digested. It
was not of so thick consistence, but gave the same sharp
smell and bitter taste, with the addition of an empyreu-
matic and slightly foetid flavoiu". The empyreuma, I at-
tributed to a portion of the meat being a little dry and
scorched, when first put in ; and the fcetor, to the tempe-
rature of the bath, having been accidentally raised con-
siderably above 100°, during the experiment.

The cold gastric and aqueous portions very nearly re-
sembled each other ; both macerated, but not digested ;
differing essentially from the other two, in not exhibiting
any appearance of chyme. The cold gastric juice had
very little, if any, more effect on the meat, than the water,
and retained its peculiar taste. Its colour was darkish-
brown, while the latter was of a reddish-grey. At 9
o'clock A.M. of the 10th, I placed both of them on the
bath, and continued them for twenty-four hours, at the
natural temperature. An essential difference in the gas-
tric liquor was produced, after being placed on the bath.
Digestion evidently advanced ; the colour became lighter
and lighter ; the meat diminished ; and a thin, light,
paste-like liquor formed, as in the other two portions, at
first placed on the bath. The aqueous portion exhibited
no other appearance than that of simple maceration in
warm water. At the end of the last twenty-four hours,
on the bath, appearances of incipient putrefactive fer-
mentation began to be manifested, as the evolution of
smaU bubbles of foetid gas, and a change of colour fi'om
a reddish to a greenish shade.

A difference in the degrees of chvmification between

GENERAL REMARKS. 147

the several parcels, was now very evident. The gastric
portion, or that taken from the stomach, an hour after
breakfast, was the most digested. The artificial, or that
portion of the gastric juice and meat first placed on the
warm bath, was next, and nearly as much digested ;
though a difference was observable. The third or por-
tion of gastric juice and meat, first placed in a cool situa-
tion, after having been on the warm bath for six or eight
hours, was the next, but considerably less digested than
the second, while the fourth, or aqueous portion, exhibited
no appearance of chymification.

Hemarks It would seem from this experiment, that a

certain degree of heat is necessary to the action of the gas-
tric juice. One parcel of the meat, after being exposed to
the cold gastric juice for twenty-four hours, exhibited very
little change; but, being placed on the bath at the end of
this time, digestion commenced, and advanced regularly as
in the other parcels. It also appears that, after the process
of digestion has ceased for want of a sufficient quantity of
gastric juice, it will recommence on the addition of a fresh
supply. It was necessary to add another quantity even
to that portion taken out of the stomach to ensure its per-
fect digestion. This, I think, is an evidence that the
fluid is discharged into the stomach gradually and pro-
gressively, according to the requirements of the aliment.
If the portion left in the stomach had received, at the
time the parcel was taken out, the whole quantity it was
destined to receive^ it must have been imperfectly di-

148 INFLUENCE OF PASSION ON DIGESTION.

gested, and have remained in the stomach precisely in
the situation of that which was taken out and submitted
to artificial digestion, which is proved not to have re-
ceived its full supply for perfect digestion.* But subse-
quent examination demonstrated that it was perfectly di-
gested, and had nearly all passed out of the stomach in
two hours. Hence, the conclusion is irresistible that it
received an additional quantity after the portion was taken
from the stomach one hour after eating.

Experiment 32.

March 1 2 At 8 o'clock a. m>, extracted one ounce

of gastric juice. At 9 o'clock he breakfasted on fat pork,
bread, and potatoes. One hour afterwards examined con-
tents of stomach ; found a heterogeneous mixture resem-
bling thick porridge.

At 1 o'clock p. M., four hours after having eaten, took
out a portion in a complete chymous state, without any
entire particles of food to be seen. It was of a milky, or
rather thin gruel-like consistence, and considerably tinged
with yellow bile, a circumstance which I had but once
before observed in my experiments upon him. And this

* This inference must be received with some limitation, because,
in other experiments, portions of food removed from the stomach
within an hour after being swallowed, were entirely digested with-
out any addition of gastric juice. In the instance in the text, two
ounces of gastric juice had been extracted an hour before eating,
which renders it next to certain that the usual qviantity could not
be furnished for the meal at the time it was eaten ; so that even
the experiment commented on scarcely warrants the inference of
the author. — Editor.

EFFECT OF DIVISION OF FOOD. 149

I supposed to have been the effect of violent anger, which
occurred about the time of taking out this parcel.

Remarks. — This experiment shews the effect of violent
passion on the digestive apparatus. The presence of bile in
this instance, was believed to be the effect of anger. In a
healthy state of the stomach, and an equable frame of
mind, this substance has seldom been found in the sto-
mach. When so found, except under peculiar circum-
stances of diet, it may generally be regarded as an indi-
cation of either mental or corporeal disease, and may be
considered a foreign and offending substance in that or-
gan. I believe its effect is to change the properties of
chyme (as it will be seen that it does in subsequent ex-
periments), alter its homogeneous quality, and retard, or
otherwise disturb, its due egress into its destined recep-
tacle the duodenum.

Experiment 33.

March 13. — At 1 o'clock p. m — diined on roasted beefi
bread, and potatoes. In half an hour examined contents
of stomach ; found what he had eaten reduced to a mass
resembling thick porridge. At 2 o'clock examined again
— nearly all chymified — a few distinct particles of food
still to be seen. At 4 o'clock, 30 minutes, chymification
complete. At 6 o'clock examined stomach ; found no-
thing but a little gastric juice tinged with bile.

Experiment 34.
March 14 At 8 o'clock, 15 minutes, introduced two

150 DIGESTION OF MILK AND BREAD.

ounces of rare^ roasted beef, suspended by a string, into
the stomach ; and, at the same time, put one drachm of
the same kind of meat into twelve drachms of gastric
juice, contained in a vial, and put it into his bosom. The
piece in his stomach, examined every hour till 12 o'clock
A. M., exhibited an uniform, but very slow process of di-
gestion, confined entirely to the surface of the meat. In
four hours about half of it only was dissolved and gone.
That in the bosom at the same time digested still slower,
owing probably to the circumstances, that the fluid in the
vial had been taken out when the stomach was in a mor-
bid condition, and had been permitted to get cold, even
to the freezing point. This last circumstance, however,
was probably of less importance than the other. The
meat in the stomach was too much confined by the string ;
was not permitted to move about freely in the gastric
fluids by the natural motions of the stomach ; and, con-
sequently, did not digest so fast as it otherwise would
have done. Another circumstance or two may also have
contributed to interrupt the progress of digestion, such
as anger and impatience, which were manifested by the
subject during this experiment.

Remarks. — This experiment shews the necessity of a
perfect comminution of the articles of diet. The gastric
juice acted very slowly on a large solid piece of meat. Di-
gestion or solution was confined entirely to the outer sur-
face. This, in addition to the other causes mentioned
above, produced the delay in digestion.

why sudden changes are hurtful. 151

Experiment 35.

March 14. — At 12 o'clock m., ate a. pint o£milk and
four ounces of bread. Examined storaach in thirty mi-
nutes ; found the milk coagulated, and the bread reduced
to a soft pulp, floating in a large proportion of fluid.

At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, took out and examined a
portion ; found it a thick pultaceous mass of bread, coa-
gulee, and fluid, of a milky colom*, slightly bitter taste,
and acid smell. Placed it on the bath, where it continued
to become more and more milky for an hour, when every
particle seemed to be reduced to a rich fluid mass, re-
sembling milk porridge.

The portion taken out thirty minutes after having been
eaten and kept on the bath, retained the appearance of
the gastric fluid, with distinct flocculi of bread and coa-
gulae floating about and suspended in the fluid, and a lit-
tle coarse precipitate at the bottom after standing at rest
a while. ^

At 2 o'clock — examined stomach ; found it nearly
empty. The bread and milk appeared to have been dis-
posed of, and were gone from the stomach.

Hemarks, — In this experiment it took two hours for the
digestion of a meal of bread and milk, something shorter
than the usual time for the disposal of an ordinary meal.
For those who have healthy and unsophisticated stomachs,
milk appears to be one of the best articles of diet we pos-
sess. It is less stimulating than flesh, and more nutritious
titan vegetables. For persons who are disposed to py-
rexial complaints, and who are not obliged to perform

152 DIGESTION OF SOUP.

hard and exhausting labour, it is the most appropriate
diet. But the stomach is a creature of habit. It can be-
come accustomed to any kind of diet ; and sudden
changes are Hable to derange its healthy actions. To
those accustomed to what is called high living, such as
strong meats, strong drinks, and high seasoned food, of
all kinds, the transition to a milk diet, which contains a
considerably lowered stimulation, would probably be an
imprudent change. When necessary, the change should
be so gradual, that the stomach should, by degrees, be-
come accommodated to it«

Experiment 36.

At 2 o'clock, 30 minutes, dined on fresh beef and vege-
table soup^ and four ou7ices of bread.

At 3 o'clock, 30 minutes, examined contents of sto-
mach,— found a pulpous mass^ of the consistence of thick
gruel, and of a semi- gek^inous appearance. The soup
appeared to have had its more fluid parts absorbed ; for
it was at this time much more consistent than when eaten.
It was even thicker than the contents of the stomach
usually are, after eating more solid food. Placed this on
the bath.

At 5 o'clock, took out another portion, of a whitish
colour, and more paste-like consistence, mixed with a
little thin transparent yellowish fluid, of an acid taste.
The thick part had the flavour of bile but not the colour.

Remarks. — Here the uniform laws with respect to liquid
diet, appeared to govern the action of the gastric juice.

DIGESTION OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 153

The soup could not be digested until it was formed into a
harder mass, by th§ absorption of the watery part. There
was a less quantity of fluid than is usual after eating more
solid food. This is another striking demonstration of the
laws that govern the action of the stomachic solvent. If
water were permitted to remain in the stomach, it would
render the soup too liquid to be acted on by the gastric
juice.

Experiment 37.

March 15 — At 8 o'clock 30 minutes, a.m., break-
fasted on fresh sausage^ light pancakes^ and a pint of
coffee.

At 9 o'clock 30 minutes, examined, and found the
stomach full of fluids, mixed with the aliment, and a large
portion of clear oil floated on the top, and presented itself
at the perforation of the stomach. At 10 o'clock 30 mi-
nutes, I took out a portion, — found the cakes and par-
ticles of meat about half digested, with some oil, pure,
bland, and limpid, rising upon the top, untouched by di-
gestion. Placed it on the bath. .

At 12 o'clock M., examined stomach, — found no ves-
tige of his breakfast, not a particle of oil was to be seen,
nothing but pure gastric juice could be extracted, of
which I took out twelve drachms.

That portion of his breakfast taken' out at 1 0 o'clock
and 30 minutes, was at this time almost completely chy-
mified, a few small particles of oil only remaining. The
chymous mass of a milky colour, and thick gruel-like
consistence.

154 very rapid digestion.

Experiment 38.
March 16. — At 8 o'clock 30 minutes, a.m., breakfast-
ed on fresh meat and vegetable hash, bread, and a pint
oi coffee. At 10 o'clock 30 minutes, examined, — found
but very few particles of his breakfast in his stomach, —
some oil, and a few flocculi of a brown colour, run out
with a little thin fluid. At 1 1 o'clock, examined again,
— found nothing but a little gastric juice. Breakfast was
gone and the stomach clean.

These experiments (37th and 38th), are continued
proofs of the solvent action of the gastric juice.

Experiment 39.

At 2 o'clock p.m., same day, dined on recently salted
lean beef, pork, potatoes, carrots, turnips, and bread.

At 5 o'clock examined, — found the stomach clear of
food, but containing a quantity of white frothy mucus, —
villous coat inclined to dryness, and deeper pink colour.
St M. complained of some headach, pain and distress at
the pit of the stomach, dry skin, and thirst. Directed
him to take four drachms of tincture of aloes and myrrh
at bedtime. This operated two or three times next
morning, and gave relief. The gastric juice, however,
was not obtained in its usual quantity and quality, for
twenty-four or thirty-six hours afterwards.

Experiment 40.

- March 18. At 9 o'clock a. m. he breakfasted on
soused tripe smd pig^s feet, bread and coffee.

DIGESTION OF GELATINE. 155

At 9 o'clock, 30 minutes, took out and examined a
portion, — found it in a half digested condition, tripe, pig's
feet, and bread, all reduced to a pulp, floating in a large
proportion of fluids. Placed it on the bath.

At 10 o'clock, examined stomach again, — tried to ex-
tract another portion, — could find little or no chyme, —
a very little gastric juice, with a tew small fibrous parti-
cles of tripe, and some coffee -grounds. His breakfast
appeared to have been digested, and had passed from the
stomach in 07ie hour.

The portion first taken out and placed on the bath,
was also, at the end of one hour, reduced to nearly a
complete chymous condition, a very few of the small par-
ticles of tripe and coffee-grounds only left, as in the sto-
mach.

Remarks. — This is an example of astonishing rapidity of
gastric solution ; and that, too, of articles generally regard-
ed as rather hard of digestion. That there could be no mis-
take, I infer from the fact, that a portion taken out of
the stomach, thirty minutes after having been received,
and submitted to the artificial mode, exhibited the same
result.

Experiment 41.

At 1 o'clock p. M., same day, he ate eight ounces of
calf's foot Jell?/, and nothing else.

In twenty minutes, examined stomach, and took out a
portion of its contents, consisting of gastric juice, com-

156 DIGESTION OF GELATINE.

bined with the jelly, nearly all of it in a fluid form ; a
few particles only of entire jelly, suspended in the fluids,
with a few small yellowish-white coagulae floating near
the surface, could be perceived.

At 2 o'clock, examined again, extracted a little fluid,
but found no appearance of jelly.

Remarks. — The operation of gastric juice on gelatine, is
very difficult to be detected. Unlike albumen, it is unsus-
ceptible of coagulation ; and it is probable that the gastric
juice acts upon it in its soft solid state. This was dis-
posed of in a short period. It was, however, but a small
quantity, and was much sooner digested than a full meal
would have been. From various trials, I am disposed to
think that gelatine, if not in too concrete a state, is a
very digestible article of diet.

During the examination at this time, St Martin swal-
lowed part of a glass of water, and being situated in a
strong light, favourable to an internal view, through the
aperture, I distinctly saw the water pass into the cavity
of the stomach, through the cardiac orifice, — a circum-
stance, perhaps, never before witnessed in a living sub-
ject. On taking repeated draughts of water while in this
position, it would gush out at the aperture, the instant it
passed through the cardia. Food, swallowed in this po-
sition, could be distinctly seen to enter the stomach.

Experiment 42.

April 7. At 8 o'clock a.m., breakfasted on three
hard boiled eggs, pancakes, and coffee.

DIGESTION OF HARD BOILED EGGS, ETC. 1 57

At 8 o'clock, 30 mins. — examined stomach — found a
heterogeneous mixture of the several articles eaten,
slightly digested. At 8 o'clock, 45 mins. — examined
again — found contents reduced in quantity, and changed
in quality — about half digested. At 10 o'clock, 1 5 mins.,
no part of the breakfast remained in the stomach.

Remarhs: — This, and the four following experiments,
throw no additional light on the subject of digestion, ex-
cept so far as relates to the period of chymification. This,
it will be perceived, depends something upon the quantity
eaten. The quality, however, is not to be overlooked.

Experiment 43.

At 11 o'clock, 15 mins. a.m. — the same day — he ate
two roasted eggs and three ripe apples.

In thirty minutes, examined stomach — found a he-
terogeneous mixture, in an incipient stage of digestion.
At 12 o'clock, 15 mins. m. — examined again — found the
stomach clear ; no vestige of apples or eggs.

Experiment 44.

At 2 o'clock p. M. — same day — dined on roasted pig
and vegetables.

At 3 o'clock — examined, and found it about half chy-
mified. At 4 o'clock, very little remained in the stomach.

At 4 o'clock, 30 minutes, nothing remained but a very
little gastric juice.

158 general conclusions.

Experiment 45.

April 8. At 2 o'clock p.m. he dined on wild goose.
At 3 o'clock — stomach full of fluids, with a large por-
tion of oil, floating on the surface ; the goose flesh in
small shreds, and soft ; digesting rapidly.

At 4 o'clock — contents of stomach two-thirds gone —
that remaining, chymified. At 4 o'clock 30 mins., the
stomach was empty and clean.

Experiment 46.

April 9. At 3 o'clock p. m. he dined on boiled, dried
codfish, potatoes, parsneps, bread, and drawn butter.

At 3 o'clock 30 mins. — examined, and took out a por-
tion, about half digested ; the potatoes the least so of any
part of the dinner. The fish was broken down into small
filaments ; the bread and parsneps were not to be distin-
guished. At 4 o'clock — examined another portion. Di-
gestion had regularly advanced. Very few particles of
fish remained entire. Some of the few potatoes were
distinctly to be seen. At 4 o'clock, 30 mins — took out
and examined another portion — all completely chymified.

At 5 o'clock — stomach empty.

Remarks. — The preceding experiments, I think, plainly
demonstrate the solvent properties of the gastric juice.
When aliment is submitted to it, out of the stomach, its
operation is rather slower than when the process of diges-
tion is assisted by the natural warmth and motions of that
organ. One reason, probably is, the difficulty of maintain-
ing a bath at the exact necessary temperature ; and ano-

USES OF BILE AND PANCREATIC JUICE. 159

ther one may present itself, in the impossibility of per-
fectly imitating the motions of the stomach. With all
these disadvantages, however, chyme formed in this way
presents the same uniform, sensible appearance, as that
which is formed in the stomach by the natm'al process.

That the cold gastric juice should not act at all, or but
very imperfectly, on aliment, is no proof, in my opinion,
that it does not possess solvent powers, even on the ad-
mission that it was a debatable question. There are but
few chemical combinations that do not require caloric
to effect their operations, and none, perhaps, that are not
facilitated by it. Some, and indeed many, of them re-
quire an intense heat. I am under the impression, though
I have never fairly tested the truth of it, that gastric juice
would, in a sufficient length of time, act on aliment in a
cold state. But I am not anxious to contend for any
extraordinary or unnecessary powers of this fluid. Nor
is it necessary to prove that it will act on cold substances,
or in cold situations. It is perfectly manifest, that its
operation is that of a chemical agent ; that it dissolves
aliment out of the stomach, when the warmth and mo-
tions of that organ are imitated ; and that it changes the
various and heterogeneous articles, submitted to its ac-
tion, to an uniform homogeneous semi-fluid, varying,
however, slightly in colour and consistence, according to
the aliment used.

With a view to ascertain, if practicable, what effects
were produced by the Bile and Pancreatic Juice,

160 EXPERIMENTS WITH BILE

when added to Chyme, I instituted the following expe-
riments.

Not being able to procure human bile in a pure state,
I obtained some ox-gall, and, for pancreatic juice, sub-
stituted diluted muriatic acid (one scruple of acid to six
ounces of water). I was induced to use this acid, from a
resemblance observed between its taste and that of the
pancreatic juice, and not being able to obtain any of that
fluid at the time.

These experiments are certainly very imperfect ; but
such as they are, I submit them to the public. They
may tend to pave the way to more perfect experiments
on these fluids.

Experiment 47.

I divided the chyme, produced in experiment 24, Se-
cond Series (Dec. 14. 1829), into two equal parts, about
five drachms each. To one of which, I added one
drachm of the ox-gall. Fine coagulae were immediately
produced, of a slightly yellowish-green colour. To this
I then added one drachm of dilute muriatic acid, which
immediately produced a white balsamic mixture. This,
after standing at rest a few minutes, separated into three
distinct parts ; a clay-coloured sediment at the bottom, a
whey-coloured fluid above, and a thin, oily, whitish pel-
licle on the top.

Experiment 48.
To an ounce of the chyme, formed in Experiment 25

AND PANCREATIC JUICE. l6l

(Dec. 16.) I added one drachm of the ox-gall, which im-
mediately converted it into a milky fluid, very finely co-
agulated. To this, I added one drachm of the diluted
muriatic acid, which at first increased the coagulae, but
immediately after threw down a brown precipitate. This,
on the addition of more bile and acid, varied in colour,
according to the different proportions put in, from a light
clay colour, to a dark brown, tinged with green, without
any change in the colour or consistence of the fluid above.
On standing at rest, it separated into three distinct
parts — a brown sediment at the bottom, a yellowish or
whey -coloured fluid in the middle, and a thin, milky-
white pellicle on the top.

Experiment 49.

Having procured some fresh gall from an ox recently
slaughtered, I added twenty drops of it to four drachms
of the chyme formed in Experiment 26 (Jan. 11. 1830).
A turbid, yellowish- white fluid, or rather, very fine,
cream-coloured coagulae, immediately formed ; which,
after standing a few minutes, separated into bright, yel-
low-coloured coagulae, subsiding towards the bottom, and
a turbid, milk-coloured liquid above.

By adding twenty drops more of the bile to this, the
coagulae were increased, more collected together, and
changed in colour, fi:om a yellow to a greenish hue.

The addition of twenty drops more of bile (making,

in the whole, one drachm), concentrated a deep grass -

green, jelly-like deposition at the bottom of the vial. The

fluid above became more milky in appearance ; and the

162 EXPERIMENTS WITH BILE

coagiilae and sediment became darker on the addition of
bile.

I now added twenty drops of the dilute muriatic acid
to other four drachms of the same kind of chyme, with-
out bile. This produced no change in the colour or con-
sistence, but increased the saline, acid taste, peculiar to
the gastric and pancreatic juices, when uncombined with
chyme.

By adding bile to this, the same effects and appear-
ances were present as in the other similar experiments ; viz.
a yellowish-brown sediment at the bottom, a whey-co-
loured fluid in the middle, and a white pellicle on the top.

To observe the different effects produced between a
combination of bile and muriatic acid in clear water, and
that of the chymous mass, I mixed equal quantities of
the gall and dilute acid, one drachm each, with two ounces
of water. This at first produced an effect, and exhibited
an appearance, similar to that of their combination with
chyme ; but gradually changed to a bluish, green-colour-
ed, thin fluid, with a deep green, jelly-like deposition at
the bottom, without any of the milky appearance of the
chymous mixtures, or white pellicle on the top.

Experiment 50.

To four drachms of gastric juice, fresh from the sto-
mach, 1 added forty drops of ox-gall, which produced a
turbid, yellowish-green fluid, yielding no sediment. Forty
drops dilute muriatic acid, added to other four drachms
of the gastric juice, effected no change in its appearance.
Equal parts of the bile and muriatic acid, mixed toge-

AND PANCREATIC JUICE. 163

ther, produced a fluid of exactly the same colour as the
first, but was less consistent.

On mixing the two first together, and adding two
drachms of chyme from the stomach, very fine coagul^
formed in a milky fluid, throwing down a brownish sedi-
ment, from a whey-coloured liquor, with the same milky
pellicle on the surface, as in the former experiments.

To one ounce of chyme, formed in a vial, on the bath,
I added two drachms of bile. A turbid, yellowish- white
mixture formed, without sediment, or immediate separa-
tion of any kind. To another ounce of the same chyme,
I added two drachms of the dilute acid. No change in
its appearance was perceptible. I then mixed them to-
gether, and the appearance of both was changed. Whitish
coagulae formed, and let fall a brown sediment, leaving
an opaque, whey- coloured fluid above, with a pellicle or
white flocculi on the surface.

Experiment 51.

Bile added to the third portion of the chyme, taken
from the stomach one hour and ten minutes after a break-
fast of venison steak, &c. Experiment 29 (March 6.
1 831), changed it from a brownish, homogeneous paste,
to a milky fluid, with small white flocculi, floating about,
or adhering to the sides of the vial ; and a light brown
sediment settled to the bottom.

The usual proportion of dilute muriatic acid, added to
this, produced no very essential change in its appearance,
causing only a little more deposition of sediment, and
slightly increasing the milky colour.

164 experiments with bile

Experiment 52.

Bile added to the chyme formed from the eggs, digest-
ed out of the stomach, Experiment 30 (March 7. 1831)
produced a rich, milky fluid, with a small quantity of fine
light- coloured sediment, falling to the bottom.

The dilute acid, added to this, produced fine coagulae,
and formed a milk-white whey, or fluid, firom which, more
of the fight- coloured sediment was precipitated.

Experiment 53.

More minutely to observe the respective changes by
the addition of bile and muriatic acid, in the several par-
cels of chyme formed in Experiment 31 (March 7. 1831),
and to note their difference, I put equal quantities of each
into glasses, and added a portion of hog's gall.

In the first (that taken from the stomach at 10 o'clock,
one hour after having eaten), fine bright orange- coloured
coagulae were immediately formed, equally diffused through
a fluid of the same colour, exhibiting no perceptible se-
diment on standing at rest, but held the coagulae, uni-
formly suspended throughout the fluid. The dilute acid,
added to this, occasioned a copious sediment to fall to the
bottom, and with it, all the colour of the mixture, leaving
a transparent, semi-gelatinous-like fluid above, in the
proportion of about three-fifths of the whole ; upon the
surface of which floated a thin, white pellicle.

The second portion (that produced on the bath), un-
der the same treatment, exhibited nearly the same ap-
pearance, with the exception of the colour, which was a

AND PANCREATIC JUICE. 165

shade or two lighter. The sediment was not quite so
compact ; the fluid less gelatinous ; and there was less
of the white pellicle on the surface.

The third portion, treated like the other two, diflPered
about as much from the second, as this did from the first.
They all exhibited the same general appearance.

The fourth, or aqueous portion, under the same treat-
ment, exhibited a wide difference. The same propor-
tion of bile added to this, produced a similar coloured
fluid, at first, with very little coarse coagulae — not so
uniformly diffused through the liquid, but inclining more
to precipitation. On adding the acid, it let fall a very
small quantity of yellowish-green sediment, leaving a
thin, semi-transparent fluid, in more than quadruple the
proportion of the other three.

Experiment 54.

Bile and dilute muriatic acid, added to a portion of
the bread and milk chyme, formed in Experiment 35
(March 14.), produced their usual coagulation and pre-
cipitation, but of a lighter yellow ; the sediment form-
ing about one-fourth of the mass. The small, white par-
ticles, forming the pellicle on the top, were in greater
proportion than in some of the other experiments, espe-
cially those on lean meats. The fluid part was in greater
proportion to the sediment, and of a whey colour and con-
sistence.

To another equal quantity of this same kind of chyme,
I added bile, as in the other, and instead of muriatic
acid, I used pancreatic Juicey fresh from a recently slaugh-

166 EXPERIMENTS WITH BILE AND PANCREATIC JUICE.

tered ox. An appearance exactly similar to that pro-
duced by the acid, was exhibited, except that the preci-
pitate was more slowly thrown down, and in larger pro-
portion ; and the white pellicle on the surface was less.
The fluid and sediment were a shade lighter, and in more
equal proportions.

Experiment 55.

Pancreatic juice, combined with the chyme of roast
beef, formed both in and out of the stomach, increased
its thin paste-like consistence, and gave it more of a
cream colour. Bile added to this produced fine coagulae,
suspended from the top to the bottom without depositing
any distinct sediment. Diluted muriatic acid darkened the
whitish colour a shade or two, threw down a more copious
sediment, and increased the white pellicle on the top.

Experiment 56.

Bile and pancreatic juice added to the fresh meat and
vegetable soup chyme (Experiment 36, March 14. 1832)
produced loose cream-coloured coagulae, which, on stand-
ing, separated into three, about equal proportions ; a coarse
brownish sediment, a semi-transparent whey- coloured
fluid, and a thick white pellicle at the top.

( 167 )

THIRD SERIES.

Washington, D. C. 1832.
Experiment 1.

Dec. 4. — At 2 o'clock 30 minutes, p. m weather

cloudy, damp, and snowing. Thermometer 35° ; ^^'ind
N. W. and brisk ; the temperature under the tongue was
99° ; in the stomach 101°. Dined, at 3 o'clock 30 mi-
nutes, on beefsoKp, meat, and bread. 4 o'clock 15 mi-
nutes,— took out a portion ; particles of beef slightly ma-
cerated, and partially digested. 5 o'clock 15 minutes,
took out another portion ; digestion more advanced ;
meat reduced to a pufp ; particles of bread and oil float-
ing on the top ; temperature of stomach 100°. 6 o'clock
45 minutes, digestion not completed ; contents consider-
ably diminished. 7 o'clock 45 minutes, stomach empty ;
chyme all passed out.

Experiment 2.

Dec. 5 At 7 o'clock a. m — temperature of the sto-
mach 100°, of the atmosphere 30°.

At 1 o'clock p. M. — temperature of stomach 100°,
atmosphere 40°, — he ate eleven raw oysters and three
dry crackers, and I suspended one raiv oyster into the
stomach, through the aperture, by a string. 1 o'clock

168 EXPERIMENTS ON DIGESTION.

30 minutes, examined ; stomach full of fluids ; digestion
not much advanced.^ The oyster on the string appeared
entire, though perhaps slightly affected on the surface.
2 o'clock — examined, and took out oyster ; about one-
third digested, but retained its shape. 2 o'clock, 30 mi-
nutes, oyster gone from the string, except a small piece
of the heart. Temperature of the stomach 101|°. Fluids
less considerable. 4 o clock, 15 minutes, stomach empty.

Experiment 3.

At 3 o'clock, 45 minutes, p. m., same day, he dined on
roast turkey, potatoes, and bread. 4 o'clock, 30 minutes,
examined, and took out a portion. Turkey nearly all dis-
solved ; vegetables half reduced. 5 o'clock, 1 5 minutes,
took out another portion, almost completely chymified.
5 o'clock, 45 minutes, examined again ; stomach nearly
empty. 6 o'clock, some chyme yet remaining. 6 o'clock,
15 minutes, stomach empty. ^

Experiment 4.

Dec. 6 At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m. he break-
fasted on bread and butter, and one pint o^ coffee. 9 o'clock,
45 minutes, examined ; stomach full of fluids. 1 0 o'clock,
30 minutes, examined, and took out a portion resembling
thin gruel in colour and consistence, with the oil of the
butter floating on the top, a few small particles of the
bread and some mucus falling to the bottom ; about two-
thirds digested. It had a sharp acid taste. Tempera-
ture of the stomach 100°, atmosphere 38°. 11 o'clock,
30 minutes, stomach empty.

experiments on digestion. 169

Experiment 5.

At 4 o'clock, 30 minutes, p. Mc, same day, he dined on
sausage and bread; full meal. 5 o'clock, 30 minutes,
stomach full of fluids ; digestion but very little advanced.
6 o'clock, 30 minutes, digestion considerably advanced ;
few distinct particles of sausage and bread to be seen en-
tire. 7 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach empty.

Experiment 6.

Dec. 7- — At 8 o'clock a. m. — examined stomach, and
took out, with considerable difficulty, an ounce only of
gastric juice, and that not very pure. Some yellow bile
came mixed with the latter portions. Temperature of
the stomach 99°? atmosphere 28°. He breakfasted, at
9 o'clock, on corn and wheat bread, butter, and coffee.

At 10 o'clock, 45 minutes, examined and took out a
portion ; food partly digested ; few small particles to be
seen. Stomach full of fluids, with a thin pellicle of oil
on the top. Temperature of the stomach 100°. At 12
o'clock A. m., stomach full of fluids ; digestion not com-
plete ; particles of bread floating about in a pulpous state ;
oil floating on the surface. At 12 o'clock, 30 minutes,
A. m., examined ; contents of stomach half diminished ;
distinct particles of oil on the surface. At 12 o'clock,
45 minutes — entire particles of bread yet to be seen ;
quantity of fluid diminishing. At 1 o'clock p. m., dis-
tinct particles of bread still floating ; fluid less. At 1
o'clock, 15 minutes, stomach empty.

Remarks. — Some indications of gastric derangement

170 DIGESTION RETARDED BY STOMACHIC DISEASE.

this morning; small aphthous patches on the mucous
membrane ; juice acrid and sharp, with bile mixed with it.

Experiment 7.

At 3 o'clock, 30 minutes, p. m., same day, he dined on
roasted mutton, bread, and potatoes. 4 o'clock, 45 mi-
nutes, examined ; stomach full ; digestion advancing. 5
o'clock, 45 minutes, contents of stomach three quarters
reduced in quantity, and almost completely chymified.
6 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach nearly empty ; a little
pulp of the bread only to be seen, floating in a little
milky fluid. 7 o'clock, stomach empty.

Experiment 8.

Dec, 8 At 5 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m. — temperature

of stomach 99°» 9 o'clock, finished breakfasting on fried
sausage, dry toast, and a pint of coffee, 10 o'clock, 30
minutes, stomach full of fluids ; villous coat red and irri-
table, inclining to dryness ; a thin whitish coat on the
tongue, and a similar appearance on the protruded por-
tion of the stomach. 1 1 o'clock, 45 minutes, stomach
full ; oil floating on the top, and rancid. Temperature
of stomach 99° ; atmosphere 46°. Weather damp and
cloudy.

Remarks. — This, and the 6th Experiment, shew, tha
when there are indicationsof disease on the coats of the sto-
mach and on the tongue, digestion is consequently pro-
tracted; and, also, that oil is particularly hard of digestion.

Experiment 9.
At 9 o'clock, a. m., same day, the vial containing the

DIGESTION RETARDED BY STOMACHIC DISEASE. 171

bread and butter aliment, taken from the stomach on the
5th inst. (Experiment 4), at half-past 10 o'clock, "a. m.,
was placed on the bath for four hom's, in the usual tem-
perature, between 95° and 100°. Digestion commenced,
and advanced regularly, partially reducing the oil to a
milky fluid.

December 9 At 1 1 o'clock, a. m., added one ounce

of gastric juice, and continued it on the bath for eight
hours, when the oil became more, but not completely di-
gested J particles of the limpid oil being still perceptible

Remarks. — This affords an example of the re-com-
mencement of digestion, after the operation had ceased,
by the addition of a fresh supply of gastric juice.

Experiment 10.

At 2 o'clock, 45 minutes, p. m., same day (Dec. 8 j, I
suspended a roasted oyster, weighing, when raw, four
drachms, into the stomach, and he ate twelve of the same
kind, each weighing about the same.

At 4 o'clock, 30 minutes — examined — oyster remain-
ing on the string, not half digested — fluid in the stomach
rancid. Complained of headach, lassitude, dull pains
in the left side, and across the breast — tongue furred, with
a thin yellowish coat, and inclined to dryness — eyes heavy,
and countenance sallow. The villous membrane of the
protruded portions of the stomach, very much resembled
the appearance of the tongue, with small aphthous patches;
in several places quite irritable and tender.

I suspended observations, and dropped into the aper-

i?^ DIGESTION AS AFFECTED BY

ture, at night, six grains blue pill, and four aloetic pills.^
common size, and sprinkled on the exposed surface of the
stomach, five or six grains of calomel. Medicine operated
early the next morning ; relieved the symptoms of indis-
position ; 'changed the appearance of the stomach and
tongue ; and removed the aphthae. On the 9th, he felt
quite well ; and the coats of the stomach looked healthy
again.

Experiment 11.

December 13. — At 7 o'clock a. m temperature 100°

— villous membrane perfectly healthy, of a pale pink colour,
and uniform — mucous coat smooth and even. Extracted
two ounces of gastric juice. It distilled more freely than
common. More could have been obtained. I had never
before seen the pure juice flow so freely. He felt in per-
fect health ; had taken neither food nor drinks since 9
o'clock last evening.

At 9 o'clock, breakfasted on broiled breast of mutton,
bread, butter, in usual quantity, and a pint of coffee, and
kept exercising. Digested in three hours and a half,
stomach empty and clean.

Experiment 12.

At 2 o'clock p. M., same day — stomach empty — coats
clean — ^he dined on three soft boiled eggs and bread, and
drank half a pint of water. 3 o'clock — digestion advan-
cing. 4 o'clock. Contents nearly gone from the stomach.
Yolk of eggs still visible, with a few particles of oil. 5
o'clock. Very little chyme in the stomach. 5 o'clock, 1 5

DISORDER OF STOMACH. 173

minutes. Some still remaining. Complains of slight
headach. Pulse full and crowded. Contents of the sto-
mach acrid. Countenance rather sallow. Eyes languid.
Tongue a little coated with a thin yellowish fur. His
bowels have not been moved since yesterday morning at
10 o'clock; then inclined to costiveness.

N. B. — After taking breakfast, he exercised moderately.
About 12 o'clock a.m., he walked about two miles, very
quick. After his return to his lodgings, he threw off his
coat, and went into the open air again. Soon after which,
he began to feel the pain in his head, &c.

Experiment 13.

December 1 4. — At 7 o'clock a. m. Stomach deeper
colour than ordinary, and inclined to dryness. Some small
aphthous patches, and spots of darker colour. Mucous
coat not uniform and even ; some places thicker, a little
elevated, and rolling up like thin membrane, leaving a
spot beneath red and irritable. Very little juice could be
extracted. I obtained a small quantity of fluid, mixed
with yellow bile ; it did not yield the peculiar acid taste
of the gastric juice. Temperature of the stomach, 100°.
St Martin did not feel his usual appetite.

At 9 o'clock, he breakfasted on the same kind of diet
as yesterday ; had less appetite, and was labouring un-
der some gastric derangement. He continued quiet, most
of the time in a recumbent position. 10 o'clock. Sto-
mach full. Globules of oil floating about. Appearance
of villous membrane about the same ; no perceptible
change. 11 o'clock. Stomach still full. Appearances

174 EXPERIMENTS ON DIGESTION

similar to those in last examination. 12 o'clock a.m.
Contents half diminished. Particles of bread, and coat
of oil on the surface. 1 o'clock p. m. Some fluid still in
the stomach, and a larger proportion of oil than at last
examination. Taste of the contents more sharp and ran-
cid ; fast leaving the stomach. At this time. I observed
several small sharp-pointed white pustules, or pimples,
here and there dispersed over the exposed portion of the
inner coat. 1 o'clock, 30 minutes. Stomach clear and
clean.

Experiment 14.

At 2 o'clock p. m., same day, he dined on three soft
boiled eggs, bread, and butter, and half a pint of luater
(same as yesterday, 2 o'clock). Digested in three hours.

Experiment 15.

December 15. At 8 o'clock a.m. I examined stomach.
Temperature 100°. Appearance of coats more natural
and healthy than yesterday niCrning ; less of those small
white pointed pimples, and aphthous spots. Very little
gastric juice could be obtained ; not more than one ounce,
and that mixed with an unusual quantity of mucus, not
so clear as common. Complained, as he frequently does
during this operation, of a sense of sinking, and vertigo
after extracting this quantity. This feeling, however
subsided in a few minutes after rising.

At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, he breakfasted on beef-steak
bread, and coffee. At the same time, he thoroughly mas-
ticated four drachms of the steak, which I put into the

OUT OF THE STOMACH. 175

gastric juice just before taken from the stomach. To
another similar quantity of gastric juice, I put the same
quantity of the steak, unmasticated, and in one entire
piece. I placed them both on the bath at 1 00°, and at
the same time, I put the same quantity of steak into one
ounce of simple water, and treated it with the others on
the bath.

At 11 o'clock I examined the stomach, and found his
breakfast nearly digested, and more than half gone from
the stomach. I took out an ounce of what remained,
which was almost completely chymified, a few particles
of the bread, in a soft pultaceous condition, only remain-
ing. Compared this with the three parcels on the bath.
It very nearly resembled the masticated meat in the gas-
tric juice, but was more digested, and thinner, and con-
tained particles of oil (melted butter) and bread, which
were not in the masticated food in the vial. The unmas-
ticated meat differed considerably. It was not so thick
and gelatinous-like ; was of a darker colour ; and the
piece of meat retained its shape, and was not much dimi-
nished in size, the surface only a little wasted, softened,
and covered with a cineritious coat. The contents of
the vial of masticated meat and water suffered very little
or no change since put in ; no more than had been effected
simply by mastication. Continued them all on the bath.

The contents of the vials, continued on the bath for
twenty-four hours, exhibited the following changes. The
portion taken from the stomach at 1 1 o'clock, remained
nearly the same as when extracted, perhaps more com-
pletely chymified. That which was masticated and put
into the gastric juice, was reduced to a thick pultaceous

176 VARIOUS EXPERIMENTS ON DIGESTION.

semi- fluid mass, but retaining some distinct fibres of the
meat, which, after standing a while, subsided to the bot-
tom of a yellowish whey- coloured fluid. These remain-
ing particles of aliment, I conceived to have been left
for want of a sufficient quantity of gastric juice, the quan-
tity at first being too small to dissolve the whole of the
meat put in. That portion in the vial of water had un-
dergone no other change than that of incipient putrefac-
tion, which was very evident. The unmasticated piece
of meat had undergone an evident process of digestion.
It was about half diminished, and the texture of the re-
maining part loose and soft. The containing fluid had
become of a greyish-brown colour, opaque, with a fine
brown sediment settling to the bottom, similar to that of
the masticated meat in the gastric juice. The gastric
juice, containing the unmasticated meat, when taken
from the stomach some sixty or seventy hours before,
was not so pure as common, was mixed with yellow bile,
and was in too small proportion to the meat. The colour
and flavour of the other two portions were very similar,
except that the one with the masticated meat was more
sharp and acrid.

Remarks, — This experiment shews the necessity of mas-
tication ; and also demonstrates, that simple maceration,
at the natural temperature, will not effect digestion.

Experiment 16.

A dinner of pork-steak and breads taken at 1 o'clock
p. M-, same day, digested in three hours forty-fiye minutes.

various experiments on digestion. i ;7

Experiment 17.

December 1 6. — At 9 o'clock a. m., he breakfasted on
cold pork-steak^ breads and one pint coffee. Digestion
completed in three hours. Two hours after having eaten,
a pellicle of oil was found floating on the top of the gas-
tric contents.

On examining the stomach, an hour after the chyme
had passed out, several red spots and patches, abraded of
the mucous coat, tender and irritable, appeared spread
over the inner surface. The tongue, too, had upon it a
thin whitish fur. Yet his appetite was rather craving.
At 2 o'clock, 30 minutes p. m., he ate a full dinner oicold
roasted pork (fresh), breads and a piece of raic radish.
Digestion completed in seven hours.

Experiment 18.

December 17 At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, a.m., I put

two dvdichxa^ fresh fried sausage in a fine muslin bag, and
suspended it into the stomach. He immediately after
breakfasted on the same kind of sausage^ and a small piece
of broiled mutton^ wheat breads and a pint of coffee. 1 1
o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach half empty, contents of bag
about half diminished. 2 o'clock p.m., stomach empty
and clean,^ — contents of bag all gone, except fifteen grains,
consisting of small pieces of cartilaginous and membran-
ous fibres, and the spice of the sausage, which last
weighed six grains, leaving only nine grains of the aliment
put in. In consequence of being called out, I delayed
the last examination longer than was necessary.

178 various experiments on digestion.

Experiment 19.

December 18. At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, a.m., I sus-
pended two drachms masticated, fried sausage^ confined
in a muslin bag, into the stomach, and he breakfasted
on the same kind of food, with bread and coffee, 11
o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach half empty — contents of bag
about half gone. 1 o'clock p. m., stomach nearly empty —
very little left in the bag. 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach
clear, except the bag, which contained a little of the
sausage ; took this out, and it weighed one drachm, spice
and all, of which there was less than yesterday. The bag,
when drawn out, came from near the pylorus, and was
covered with a coat of mucous and yellow bile. The
^contents of the stomach have been unusually acrid since
yesterday morning, and he complains of unusual smart-
ing and irritation at the edges of the aperture ; counte-
nance sallow ; tongue covered with a thin yellowish coat,
and several deep red patches on the inner coat of the
stomach ; does not feel his usual appetite. 9 o'clock —
dropped into the aperture twelve grains blue pill, and
five cathartic pills — operated early the next morning,
removed the symptoms, and restored his healthy sensa-
tions and functions.

Experiment 20.

December 19 — At 8 o'clock, 45 minutes, a. m., I sus-
pended three drachms broiled bass, in a muslin bag, into
the stomach, and he breakfasted on the same kind offish,
with, bread, a small piece of sausage, and a pint of coffee.

VARIOUS EXPERIMENTS ON DIGESTION. 179

2 o'clock P. M. — complains of smarting at the aperture —
I took out the bag — remaining contents weighed two
drachms, having lost one drachm only in five hours and
a quarter. Coats of the stomach did not appear healthy
-—deeper red than natural, with patches of still deeper
colour spread over the protruded portion. Mucous
covering abraded in places and rolled up, resembling
shreds of epidermis, torn from a blistered surface.

Remarks. — These three last experiments are examples
of the solvent or chemical action of the gastric juice. It
penetrated the muslin bags, dissolved the food, and allowed
the chyme to strain out. They also indicate, that irri-
tating substances (as, for instance, the muslin bags in
these experiments) produce a diseased state of the sto-
mach.

Experiment 21.

December 20 At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, a.m., —

Coats of stomach appear healthy — considerable fluid
plainly to be seen. It ran out of the aperture on turn-
ing him down ; was transparent, and contained flocculi
of mucus. Breakfasted on broiled bass, toasted bread,
and coffee. Digested in five and a half hours.

Experiment 22.

At 2 o'clock p. M. he dined on boiled chicken and toheat-
bread. Digested in four and a half hours.

180 various experiments on digestion.

Experiment 23.

December 21. — At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, a.m. — sto-
mach not perfectly healthy — several small deep-red patches
on the exposed surface. Extracted four drachms gastric
juice, tinged with yellow bile. Masticated one and a
half scruples of the thigh of a boiled chicken, and half a
scruple of bread ; put them into tliis gastric juice, and
placed the vial in the axilla. Into the same quantity of
pure water, warmed to 70°, I put the same quantity and
kind of aliment, and placed them in the same situation.
He breakfasted at the same time on the same kind of diet.
1 o'clock p. M. — stomach empty. At 2 o'clock he dined
on same kind of food. 6 o'clock, 30 minutes — stomach
empty.

The masticated portion put into the vial of gastric juice,
placed on the bath, and frequently agitated, digested re-
gularly and uniformly until about 2 o'clock, p.m., when
the particles were all dissolved, except a few fibres.
That in the vial of water, kept in the same situation, had
not changed its appearance from the time it was put in.
On separating the remaining particles of food, in the
gastric juice, at evening, filtering on thin muslin, and
drying with paper, it weighed fifteen grains, and left four
drachms and a fraction, of an opaque, milky-coloured
fluid. That in the water, taken out at the same time,
weighed forty grains, and left four drachms of a turbid
fluid, like water, with flour stirred in it, and had a maw-
kish, insipid taste and smell. The first had the acid
smell and taste peculiar to the gastric contents.

various experiments on digestion. 181

Experiment 24.

I>ec. 22. At 8 o'clock a.m. — examined stomach — tem-
perature 100°. Extracted about four drachms gastric
juice, pure but not free. At 8 o'clock, 30 mins., he
breakfasted on breads, cheese^ and coffee. 9 o'clock —
stomach full of fluids — temperature 100°. 11 o'clock —
stomach full, with the cheese in a fluid form, floating on
the surface ; bread reduced to a pulp — temperature 100°.
12 o'clock M. — ^food still in the stomach ; but consider-
ably diminished. 1 o'clock, 30 mins., p.m. — some of the
cheese yet remaining — stomach nearly empty. 2 o'clock
— stomach empty.

The coats of the stomach have not appeared in their
usual healthy condition for several days past — the colour
darker — mucous coat unequal — some patches of a pur-
plish colour, with aphthous edges — surface inclined to be
dry — very little secretion of gastric juice — digestion
slower and less perfect than usual — bowels inactive,
nothing having passed them for sixty hours.

Remarks. — It would seem from this experiment, that
cheese was difficult of digestion. In addition to its closeness
of texture, it generally contains a large proportion of oil.

Experiment 25.

Dec. 23. At 6 o'clock a.m. — temperature of stomach,
100° — ^pulse ^6 a minute. 9 o'clock — temperature of
stomach 100° — pulse 75. Villous membrane incHned to
dryness, and of a darker than natural colour ; papillae

182 CURIOUS STATE OF STOMACH.

small and sharp ; mucous covering scarcely perceptible ;
bowels costive ; tongue coated with a yellowish fur, and
its edges pale. I poured in, at the aperture, one ounce
01. Ricini, and sprinkled over the surface of the protru-
ded coats five or six grains of calomel. He ate a light
breakfast of corn-bread and crackers, and drank a pint of
coffee immediately after.

At 2 o'clock p. M. — stomach empty — coats look heal-
thier. Medicine not having moved the bowels, I put in,
at the aperture, twelve additional grains of calomel, per
se. At 5 o'clock, the stomach was in commotion — indi-
cations of the cathartic operation of the calomel ; slight
nausea ; stomach full of a white frothy fluid, running out
at the aperture, like fermenting beer from a bottle ; slight
pain and motion in the bowels ; and increased secretion
of saliva. No motion from the bowels. Temperature of
stomach 101°. Pulse 80 beats in a minute.

At 8 o'clock, calomel had operated twice, copiously,
commencing at 7. Temperature^of stomach, 100°. Pulse
62, soft and mild.

Experiment 26.

Dec. 25. 'At 8 o'clock a.m. — weather partially cloudy
— atmosphere dry, and smoky — wind E. and light — Th.
31°. Temperature of the stomach, 100° and a fraction.
Pulse 55 in a recumbent position ; Q6, sitting erect. A
few small red spots on the mucous surface. The gastric
secretions appear as healthy as usual.

At 9 o'clock, he breakfasted on boiled, salted fat pork,
corn-bread, and coffee. 10 o'clock, the stomach at the

INCREASE OF HEAT IN STOMACH. 183

same temperature as at 8 o'clock. Pulse 65 in a recum-
bent and 75 in an erect position. Gastric cavity full of
a heterogeneous mixture. At 11 o'clock, 30 mins. — just
returned from walking moderately, about an hour, a dis-
tance of two and a half miles ; not to produce free per-
spiration, but gentle diaphoresis. Weather clear, calm,
and dry. Th. 50°. Temperature of the stomach 101°.
Pulse 72, in a recumbent position ; 82, sitting erect, and
regular. Contents of stomach half reduced, and nearly
homogeneous. At 12 o'clock, 30 mins., m. — tempera-
ture of stomach 100|°. Pulse 62, recumbent; 72 erect.
Contents nearly gone. At 1 o'clock, 30 mins., p.m., sto-
mach empty.

At 9 o'clock, — weather cloudy — atmosphere dry — no
wind — Th. 42° — the temperature of the stomach was
99 J °. He drank half a pint of water fifteen or twenty
minutes before examination. Pulse 62, recumbent ; 72,
erect.

This is an example of the increase of the temperature
of the stomach on exercise. See also, subsequent expe-
riments..

Experiment 27.

Dec, 26. At 6 o'clock a.m. — weather cloudy — atmos-
phere damp — wind N.E. and light — Th. 38° — tempera-
ture of the stomach 99i°. Pulse 55, recumbent; 65
erect. Respirations, in a recumbent position, 1 5, and in
a sitting posture, 18a minute. At 8 o'clock, he return-
ed from a walk of two miles, but not to produce perspira-

184 EXPERIMENTS ON DIGESTION.

tion. Weather damp, and raining lightly. Th. 36°.
Temperature of the stomach, 101°. Pulse 65, recum-
bent ; 85, erect. Feelings of impatience here evidently
accelerated his pulse, in the erect position. He was
vexed at being detained a few minutes from his breakfast.

At 5 o'clock p. M. — weather rainy — wind N. E. — Th.
41° — I examined the stomach. Temperature, 99 J'
Pulse, 60 recumbent ; 70, erect. At 8 o'clock, the tem-
perature of the stomach, 101*. Pulse, 50 recumbent;
60, erect. Respirations, 15a minute.

His diet through the day had been confined princi-
pally to farinaceous substances, wheat-bread and crackers,
in moderate quantities.

Experiment 28.

Dec. 27. At 6 o'clock a.m. — weather unpleasant — at-
mosphere damp — wind E. — Th. 38°. Temperature of
stomach, 99|° — surface clean and healthy — no dark red,
or aphthous patches, nor white, with elevated points — mu-
cous coat uniform and even, of the natural colour — no
excoriation or smarting at the edges of the aperture. I
extracted one ounce of gastric juice, slightly tinged with
yellow bile. This I conceive to have been entirely ac-
cidental ; and occasioned by the regurgitation of the
bile through the pylorus, as he turned upon his back,
from right to left, to favour the exit of the gastric juice.
The same thing has happened several times before.

At 9 o'clock, he breakfasted on three ounces broiled
breast of mutton, four ounces of wheat and corn bread,
very thoroughly masticated, and a pint oi coffee. At the

EXPERIMENTS ON DIGESTION. .185

same time, I put two drachms of same kind of food,
equally well masticated, into the ounce of gastric juice
taken from the stomach at 6 o'clock, and the same quan-
tity of same kind of food, masticated in the same manner,
into an ounce of simple water, placed them both together
first in the axilla and afterwards on the bath, between 96°
and 100°.

At 12 o'clock M., stomach nearly empty. Was just
able to get out one ounce for comparison, almost com-
pletely dissolved ; a few particles of bread only visible.
Temperature 100°. At 12 o'clock, 30 minutes, no dis-
tinct particles of food to be seen. All chymified and
passed from the stomach. Nothing but a little frothy
mucus remaining in the stomach. Coats clean ; colour
pale pink. Temperature 100°. At 2 o'clock p.m. he
dined on the same quantity and kind of food that he had
taken for his breakfast (broiled mutton and bread). Drank
nothing since morning. Temperature of stomach 100° ;
thermometer 62° ; wind S. ; weather fair since 12 o'clock.
2 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach as full of fluids as when
he drank a pint immediately after eating. No percepti-
ble difference in appearance. 6 o'clock, stomach empty
and clean. 9 o'clock, temperature of the stomach 100°.
Weather the same as at 2 o'clock.

The changes effected in the contents of the two vials,
mentioned above, and kept in the axilla till 9 o'clock p. m.
were as follows : — In that containing the gastric juice,
the food was about half dissolved and loosely suspended
towards the bottom of a reddish -grey coloured fluid.
That in the water exhibited no other appearance of di-

186 DIGESTION AND MACERATION COMPARED.

gestion than what was effected by mastication, when first
put in. The masticated food had subsided to the bottom
of a transparent watery fluid, as clear as when first put in.
At 8 o'clock A. M. of the 28th, I added the two drachms
of gastric juice taken from the stomach at that time, to
the vial containing the gastric juice, and the same quan-
tity of water to the watery mixture, and placed them in
the axilla again. At 6 o'clock p.m. examined vials — di-
gestion had recommenced, and advanced in the gastric
juice in proportion to the quantity added. The sediment
had become more dissolved, and the fluid part increased.
This sediment taken out, filtered through muslin, and
pressed as dry as when4)ut in, weighed forty -five grains
only, having completely dissolved one drachm and fifteen
grains, and produced a gruel-like milky-coloured fluid.
That in the water remained unchanged, and when taken
out and pressed dry through a piece of mushn, like the
other, weighed one drachm and thirty-five grains. This
reduction, I suppose, was the effects of mastication and
maceration in the water for thirty-six hours. These two
parcels, kept tight corked, in a temperature between 50<^
and 70°, remained free from any fcEtor for forty-five days.
The gastric portion, at the end of this time, emitted a
caseous flavour, and the aqueous portion smelt musty and
sour.

Remarks. — This is a comparison between solution by the
gastric juice and maceration in water. These results are
interesting, not only as establishing physiological principles
on certain data, but they have an important practical ap-

DIGESTION OF A LARGE MEAL. 187

plication. They have, consequently, been frequently
repeated.

The fact, that the stomach contains aquantity of fluid,
soon after the ingestion of dry food, which was alluded
to in the preliminary essay, is here perfectly demon-
strated.

Experiment 29-

December 28 At 8 o'clock a. m. weather clear ; at-
mosphere dry ; wind N. ; thermometer 34°. Tempera-
ture of stomach, 100°. Coats clean and healthy. Gas-
tric juice scarce ; extracted two drachms only, and that
with considerable difficulty.

At 9 o'clock a. M. he breakfasted on same kind of food
as yesterday, in usual manner, slightly masticated, and
swallowed fast, without regard to quantity. 1 o'clock
p. M. a small portion still in the stomach — nearly dissolved.
1 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach empty.

Experiment 30.

December 29. — At 9 o'clock a.m. weather clear and
dry ; wind N. W. and light ; thermometer 34° ; tempe-
rature of stomach 100°; coats clean and healthy; he
breakfasted on fat pork, dry toasty and coffee — full meal.
1 o'clock p. m. stomach half full of lardaceous fluid — no
particle of any thing else but gastric fluids to be seen.
Temperature 100°. 2 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach not
empty. 3 o'clock, stomach empty and clean.

Remarks, — The protracted period of complete chymifi-

188 EXPERIMENTS ON DIGESTION.

cation in this meal, I conceive to have been principally ow-
ing to the unusual quantity of food taken being dispropor-
tioned lo the gastric secretions, and more than vras requir-
ed to replenish the natural waste of the system. The
quality of the food had undoubtedly some effect.

Experiment 31.

December 30 — At 8 o'clock a. m. weather clear and
dry ; wind N. W. and Hght ; thermometer 26° -, stomach ■
clean and healthy; temperature 100°. Gastric juice
pure, and distills more fi-eely than common. Extracted
one ounce without any difficulty.

At 9 o^clock he breakfasted on two and a half ounces
of boiled recently salted fat pork, three ounces of wheat-
bread, masticated in usual manner, and one pint o? coffee.
At the same time, I took two parcels, equal quantities,
of the same kind of food (pork and bread), half a drachm
of each kind, both masticated in same manner, put one
of them into the ounce of gastric juice taken from the
stomach before eating, and the other into the same quan-
tity of simple water, of the temperature of the gastric
juice, and placed them in the axilla.

At 1 1 o'clock, I took out of the stomach one and a
half ounces of its contents, put them into a vial, and placed
it in the axilla with the other two. The difference be-
tween this taken out of the stomach, and that in the gas-
tric juice, was quite perceptible. The particles of ali-
ment contained in the last, appeared more nearly dis-
solved, very few remaining distinct. That taken from
the stomach contained a larger proportion of the entire

STOMACH ACTED UPON BY INTOXICATION. 189

food and floating oil. The colour of the middle portions,
as well as the smell and taste, were very similar. That
from the stomach was rather more rancid and sharp than
that in the gastric juice in the vial. Both possessed the
peculiar gastric acid flavour.

At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, the stomach was empty and
clean, and probably was so at 1 o'clock ; but owing to ac-
cident, I did not examine at that time. He became intoxi-
cated in the afternoon, and interrupted the experiments.

On the 2d oi January 1833, I added half an ounce of
fresh gastric juice to the parcel of chyme taken from the
stomach at 11 o'clock, in the above experiment, which, at
this time, contained a large proportion of undigested lard-
aceous matter, floating on the surface. Put the vial in
the axilla.

On the 3d, I added three drachms more of fresh gas-
tric juice to the above.

On the 6th, I added three drachms gastric juice to the
above, and placed it on the bath.

On the addition of each of these portions of gastric
juice, chymification recommenced, and the lardaceous
portion of the aliment continued to be reduced for seve-
ral hours, till the solvent power became expended, when
its action would cease.

Experiment 32.

December 31. — At 7 o'clock a.m. weather cloudy ; at-
mosphere damp and chilly ; wind S. ; thermometer 30° ;
temperature of the stomach 100|° ; colour darker red
than natural, and arid. Mucous coat abraded in spots,

190 EXPERIMENTS ON DIGESTION.

and rolled in small shreds ; more irritable than usual.
At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, breakfasted on same quantity
and kind of food as yesterday (pork, bread, &c.). At 11
o'clock, took out one and a half ounces contents fi'om
the stomach, in appearance half digested. 12 o'clock m.
took out another portion more completely dissolved.
Stomach nearly empty. 1 o'clock, stomach empty. At

I o'clock, 30 minutes, he dined on salted boiled beefi po-
tatoes, parsneps, and bread, full meal, without regard to
quantity or mastication. 4 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach
perfectly empty.

The one and a half ounces taken from the stomach at

II o'clock A.M. very nearly resembled the contents of
the vial of gastric juice and masticated food of the 30th
(yesterday) in almost every particular. That' taken out
at 12 o'clock M. had more of the lardaceous and less of
the distinct fibrous particles of aliment.

The diseased appearance of the stomach at this exa-
mination, was probably the eflPect of intoxication the day
before.

Experiment 33.

January 1. 1833 At 8 o'clock a.m. weather dark

and rainy ; wind S. ; thermometer 50° ; temperature of
stomach 100°, healthy and clean. Extracted half an
ounce of gastric juice. At 9 o'clock, I took two scru-
ples salted lean beef (boiled), chopped very fine with a
knife, put one scruple into the half ounce of gastric juice,
and the other scruple into half an ounce of simple water,

EXPERIMENTS ON DIGESTION. 191

and placed them together in the axilla. At the same
time, he breakfasted on two ounces of boiled salted lean
beef, bread, and a pint of coffee.

At 12 o'clock M. I took from the stomach one ounce
of its contents, not fully digested, bread principally re-
maining, reduced to a pulp. Compared with the gastric
juice and food in the vial, the particles of meat seemed
rather more dissolved. Stomach about half empty. At
1 o'clock P.M. stomach empty and clean. At 8 o'clock,
30 minutes, a. m., on the 3d, I added one drachm fresh
gastric juice to the vial of gastric juice and chopped beef,
and one drachm of water, to the watery mixture, and
placed them together in the axilla.

On the 4th, the beef in the gastric juice not being
completely dissolved, I added two drachms fresh gastric
juice to it, and two drachms of water to the aqueous
mixture. Continued them on the bath, or in the axilla.
The watery portion began now to smell quite foetid.

At 8 o'clock on the 5th, the meat in the gastric juice
was completely dissolved, and a fme reddish-grey sedi-
ment had fallen to the bottom of an opaque gruel-like
fluid, with a pellicle of gre^dsh-white particles on the top.
The aqueous portion had become more fcetid. The par-
ticles of meat were the same as when first put in, only a
little macerated and paler — the fluid transparent, but be-
coming darker and a httle greenish — no appearance of
solution.

On the 10th the contents of the aqueous portion were
quite fcetid. The gastric portion was perfectly sweet and
bland.

192 experiments and observations.

Experiment 34.

At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p. m., same day, he dined on
lean salted beef and bread. Digested in three and a half
hours.

Experiment 35.

Equal parts of alcohol and gastric juice mixed together
and agitated, produced a turbid milky-white fluid ; which,
after standing at rest, raised a thin white coat of fine loose
coagulae on the surface. When the juice and alcohol
were first put together, and before agitating, the gastric
juice settled to the bottom, and the alcohol remained on
the top, indicating that its specific gravity was less than
the fluid.

Experiment 36.

Jan. 2. — At 8 o'clock a. m. stomach empty ; extracted
half an ounce of gastric juice. 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, he
breakfasted on dr2/ bread and a pint of coffee. 1 1 o'clock
stomach nearly full of a pulpous semi-fluid mass resem-
bhng thick gruel. 12 o'clock, nearly empty. 12 o'clock,
30 minutes, empty and clean.

Experiment 37-

At 2 o'clock p. m. he dined on boiled potatoes , a small
piece of bread, and drank a glass of water, 4 o'clock,
30 minutes, stomach full of fluids, and quite acrid, of a
whitish colour, with particles of potatoes floating about.
6 o'clock, stomach empty.

experiments and observations. 193

Experiment 38.

Jan. 3. — Kx, 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m. weather plea-
sant, smoky, and clear.* Thermometer 38°. Tempera-
ture of the stomach 101 1°, immediately after a walk of
two miles, producing free perspiration and colour in the
face. Extracted half an ounce of gastric juice.

At 9 o'clock, 30 minutes, he breakfasted on coldi broiled
breast of veal, boiled potatoes and bread. At the same,
or within fifteen minutes of the time, I suspended into
the stomach, at the aperture, twenty grains of masticated
lean veal, contained in a muslin bag. At 12 o'clock a.m.
contents of stomach half diminished. 1 o'clock p. m.,
stomach nearly empty. 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, all gone
from the stomach except the musUn bag and contents.
The contents appeared to be about half diminished.

At 2 o'clock I took out the bag of veal, and, pressing
it as dry as I could, without forcing the remaining par-
ticles of meat through the cloth, it weighed ten grains,
having lost ten grains by digestion in four and a half
hours. The veal, when first put in the bag and suspend-
ed in the stomach, was of a clay or greyish-white colour,
but when taken out and weighed was of a palish red or
light flesh colour, and of a glutinous appearance.

Experiment 39.

At 3 o'clock p.m., same day, dined on broiled veal s^xxd.

bread, and drank halfa pint of ?^?a^er. Digested in two hours.

• The ahove descriptiou of the weather .being smoky and clear^
looks like an Irish bull, but so it certainly stands in the original.
— Editor.

194 experiments and observations.

Experiment 40.

Jan. 4. — At 8 o'clock a. m., stomach health}^. Ex-
tracted two drachms gastric juice ; came pure, but very
slow. At 9 o'clock breakfasted on broiled veal, bread, and
coffee. 1 1 o'clock, stomach full ; oil floating on the sur-
face, acrid and sharp, excoriating the edges of the aper-
ture and skin. 12 o'clock m., chyme passing out. Sto-
mach two-thirds empty. 1 o'clock p. m., stomach empty.

Experiment 41.

At 2 o'clock p. M., same day, he dined on breast of
broiled veal and bread, and drank a tumbler of water.
5 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach nearly empty. 6 o'clock,
examined stomach ; chyme of a milky- white colour. 6
o'clock, 30 minutes, chyme still remaining. 7 o'clock,
stomach not empty ; took out half an ounce of contents.
It was a milky- white fluid, with a peculiar smell and
slightly acid and bitter taste. 7 o'clock, 1 5 minutes, sto-
mach empty.

Experiment 42.

Jan. 5 — At 8 o'clock a. m. stomach healthy and clean.
Extracted half an ounce of gastric juice. Put it into a
vial, and immersed in it fifteen grains of firm tendon of
young beef, in a solid piece. Kept it either in the axilla
or on the bath for twenty-four hours, when all was com-
pletely dissolved.

At 8 o'clock, 45 minutes, he breakfasted on broiled
veal, bread, and coffee, and kept exercising. 12 o'clock

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 195

M. Stomach about half empty ; took out half an ounce
completely dissolved ; no distinct particles of food to be
seen. 12 o'clock, 30 minutes, m., all gone.

Remarks. — .This affords an example of the digestion
of tendon. Hard solid substances require a greater quan-
tity of gastric juice than more tender fibre, and take a
longer time for their complete solution.

Experiment 43.

At 1 o'clock p. M. same day dined on broiled veal and
bread, and drank half a pint of water. Digestion com-
pleted in four and a half hours.

Experiment 44.

Jan. 6. — At 8 o'clock a. m. examined stomach. Coats
generally healthy ; few small erythematous patches on
mucous surface. Secretions pure. Extracted one and a
half ounces clear gastric juice, containing less than the
usual quantity of mucous flocculi. It ran more freely
than common through the tube. More could have been
obtained ; but a sensation of faintness, and sinking at the
pit of the stomach being felt and complained of, I de-
sisted. This sensation has almost uniformly occurred
whenever the gastric juice has flowed more freely than
usual, and has been suffered to run out to the quantity of
one and a half or two ounces, — ^followed by dimness of
vision and vertigo on rising. These feelings, however,
subside in a few minutes, and he feels as usual, and eats
his meals with a good appetite.

196 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

At 9 o'clock he breakfasted on broiled veal and bread
again, as yesterday, and kept exercising. 1 o'clock p. m.
stomach nearly empty; several small spots of dark gru-
mous blood, exuding from the papillae of the inner coats,
made their appearance. 2 o'clock, some appearance of
the breakfast still in the stomach. 2 o'clock, 1 5 minutes^
stomach empty.

Experiment 45.

At 2 o'clock, 30 minutes, p. m. same day, he dined on
one pint of barley gruel sweetened with molasses. 4
o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach empty ; none of the bar-
ley gruel to be seen. Several small sharp-pointed white
pustules made their appearance on the inner surface of
the stomach at this time, and the surface generally was
of a paler colour, and more flaccid than usual.

Experiment 46.

I ^Jan. 7 At 8 o'clock a. m. weather cloudy, damp, and

disagreeable ; thermometer 48° ; wind N.E. ; tempera-
ture of stomach 100°. Less of the small pustules and
red patches than yesterday. Colour of the coats natural
again, but little secretion of gastric juice this morning.
Could obtain only a drachm or two. At 9 o'clock a. m.
temperature of stomach 100°. He breakfasted on soft
boiled eggs, soft toast, and coffee, 12 o'clock m. sto-
mach empty.

Experiment 47.
' At 12 o'clock, 30 minutes, m. same day, he dined

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 197

on three hard-boiled eggs and bread. 3 o'clock, 30 mi-
nutes, stomach half empty. Remaining contents acrid.
Edges of the aperture excoriated. Some pimples and
erythematous patches on the surface of the inner coats.
4 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach and contents in nearly the
same condition as at last examination ; very acrid and
sharp ; coats red. 6 o'clock, stomach empty.

Remarks These three or four last experiments de-
monstrate that a diseased state of the stomach retards
digestion.

Experiment 48.

Jan. 8 — At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m. examined sto-
mach. Coats healthy. None of those white pustules
and erythematousjpatches ' observed yesterday and the
day before to be seen this morning. Colour of the lining
membrane rather paler than common. Surface moist.
Extracted half an ounce of gastric juice without difficulty.
A slight and momentary vertigo was felt in rising up.
No faintness or sense of sinking at the scrobiculus cordis
at this extraction. I divided these four drachms of gas-
tric juice into two equal parts, and put them into separate
vials. In a third vial I put two drachms of simple water.
To each of these three vials I added eleven grains of the
muscle of a sheep's heart, in an entire piece. Kept one
of the vials of gastric juice and meat in the axilla, and
placed the other, with the aqueous vial, in a cool place,
at about 46°, agitating them alike frequently.

At 7 o'clock p. M. the piece in the warm gastric juice

198 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

was half digested ; the fluid of an opaque reddish-brown
colour. That in the cold gastric juice was a very little
affected, the surface being covered with a thin glutinous
coat, and the fluid a little turbid. That in the water was
not in the least affected. The water was perfectly tran-
sparent, as when first put in.

At 9 o'clock A. M, of the 9th, these several pieces of
muscle exhibited the following results. That in the warm
gastric juice, when taken out and pressed dry, as when
put in, weighed seven and a half grains. That in the cold
gastric juice, treated in the same manner, weighed twelve
and a half grains, having gained by the absorption of gas-
tric juice, one and a half grains. And that in the simple
water, weighed eleven grains, the same as when put in,
having neither lost nor gained.

The tiiree and a half grains that remained in the first
vial were in one entire piece, of the same shape as when
first put in ; but very soft and tender, hardly able to sus-
tain sufficient pressure to be raised by the finger and
thumb. It was a mere pulp. The meat in the second
vial was increased a little in size ; appeared swollen, soft,
slimy and tender ; but had sufficient firmness of texture
to resist considerable pressure, when taken up. It was
not dissolved. That in the water retained its firmness
and was unaltered in appearance, except a paleness of
surface, occasioned by maceration.

At 8 o'clock next morning (the 10th), the following
appearances were evident. The first piece in the warm
gastric juice, weighed one and a half grains, having lost
in the last twenty-three hours, two grains only. It re-

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 199

tained the same shape, and was of about the same con-
sistence as yesterday. A reddish-brown sediment sub-
sided to the bottom of a rich whey-coloured fluid. The
second piece, in the cold gastric juice, weighed nine grains
and a fraction, having lost about three and a half grains.
That in the water was unaltered, and weighed the same
as when put in — eleven grains.

It may be proper to remark, that the two pieces in the
cold gastric juice and water, were moved from their fir^t
position in a temperature of about 46°, and placed, for
the last twenty-three hours, on the mantle-piece over the
fire, in my room, in a temperature of about G0°. The
loss of the two and a half grains of meat, in the cold gas-
tric juice, was evidently the effect of digestion, occasioned,
no doubt, by the increase of fourteen or fifteen degrees
of temperature.

On the 10th, I added to the vial containing the warm
gastric juice and muscle, one-fourth of a drachm of fresh
gastric juice, warm from the stomach. Continued it in
axilla, and in five hours it was dissolved to a mite, scarcely
perceptible.

The piece in the cold gastric juice, kept on the mantle-
piece, in a temperature between 50° and 60°, till 9 o'clock
A. M. of the 1 1th, weighed seven grains, retaining the same
shape as yesterday, and a similar texture. The fluid had
become more opaque and milky, and the sediment had
increased at the bottom. The piece in the water at this
time remained unaltered, and weighed precisely the same
as at first — eleven grains.

At 9 o'clock A. M., I placed both these in the axilla-,

200 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

At 9 o'clock P. M. the piece remaining in the second vial
of gastric juice, placed in the axilla this morning, was
nearly all dissolved, one grain only remaining — a soft
pulp. The piece in the water remained unaltered, and
weighed the same as at first ; but began to emit a strong
fetid odour, and in a few days became very putrid. This
v/as, however, almost entirely corrected, by the addition
of three drachms of fresh gastric juice on the 21st. The
meat still continued its original shape and size, and no
doubt, its weight, though too putrid to handle, or take out,
before the addition of the gastric juice. Placed it on the
bath, and it began to digest, and §oon became chymified,
lost its fetid smell, and acquired a sharp acid, or rather
acrid, taste.

Hemarlis The result of this experiment is interesting,

in demonstrating the solvent properties of the gastric juice.
Maceration alone will not dissolve food, nor separate its
nutritious parts. It appears, also, from this experiment,
that gastric juice corrects the putrid- tendency of ali-
ments ; and that food is more readily dissolved after that
tendency has occurred.

Experiment 49.

January 11. — At 8 o'clock a.m. ; weather clear and
dry ; wind S. W. ; thermometer 1 5°. ; temperature of
the stomach 100° ; coats healthy. Extracted one ounce
of gastric juice, clear and transparent ; few flocculi of
mucus ; taste distinctly acid. Complains of the usual
sense of distress at the pit of the stomach, and vertigo.

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 201

At 9 o'clock, 30 minutes, he breakfasted on pork and
bread. Digested in four hours and a half.

Experiment 50.

At 9 o'clock, '30 minutes, a. m., same day, I took three
vials, and put into each two drachms pure gastric juice,
fresh from the healthy stomach. To one, I added one
drachm o^ albumen ; white of egg ; to the second, half a
drachm of the yolk, and to the third, another drachm of
albumen. Put the two first in axilla, and the other on
the mantle -piece. At 9 o'clock p.m. the albumen in the
warm gastric juice, in the axilla, had become quite
opaque, with loose light-coloured sediment at the bottom.
The albumen in the cold gastric juice remained unaltered.
That containing the yolk, exhibited the appearance of a
mere mixture of fine yellow coagulae, resembling sulphur
and milk mixed together.

On the 12th, at 8 o'clock p. m., both vials having been
continued on the bath, or in the axilla, through the day,
the difference observed last evening, between the cold
and warm vials of albumen, was very little increased.
The yolk was considerably altered from a loose coagulae,
generally diffused through the gastric juice, to a fine
compact body of coagulae, rising upon the top of a per-
fectly clear transparent fluid, free from a particle of sedi-
ment.

Experiment 51.
At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m. Stomach healthy. Ex-
tracted one ounce of gastric juice, a little tinged with

202 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

yellow, whether from bile or tobacco, it was difficult to
determine. He had taken some tobacco into his mouth
an hour and a half previous to the examination, and the
fluid was not perceptibly bitter. There was a larger por-
tion of frothy saliva, and flocculi of mucus, than common.
At 10 o'clock, 15 minutes, he breakfasted on boiled salted
codfish, bread and coffee. Digested in two hours and a
quarter.

Experiment 52.

January 13. — At 8 o'clock a.m.; weather overcast
dry and smoky ; light wind ; thermometer 12° ; tem-
perature of stomach 100° and a fraction ; pulse 60, in
a recumbent, and 70, in an erect position ; coats not
perfectly healthy — general surface rather paler than usual
— some red spots and pimples to be seen. Extracted
three drachms of gastric juice, slightly acid — not so much
as usual — ^less mucus, and more saliva than common.
Neither tinge nor taste of bile.

At 9 o'clock he breakfasted on boiled fat pork, and
bread. At 12 o'clock m. Stomach two-thirds empty.
Temperature 100° and a fraction. At 2 o'clock p.m.
Stomach nearly empty — very little pulp of bread, and
lardaceous fluid to be seen. Has just returned from
w^alking two miles or more. Temperature of stomach,
100|°. At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach empty. Tem-
perature 101°.

Experiment 53.
January 9. — At 2 o'clock p.m. same day, he dined on

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 203

boiled fat pork, boiled cabbage and bread, and drank a
tumbler of water. Digested in five hours. 9 o'clock,
temperature 100°.

Experiment 54.

January 14 — At 8 o'clock 40 minutes, a.m.; weather
clear, dry, and serene ; wind N. W. and light ; ther-
mometer 28° ; stomach healthy ; coats clean ; tempera-
ture of stomach, 100°. Extracted nine drachms of
pure gastric juice, distinctly acid, few flocculi of mucus,
and a little appearance of frothy saliva. A slight sense
of faintness and vertigo ensued, as usual, on rising, after
this quantity. At 9 o'clock, breakfasted on boiled fat
pork and bread. 12 o'clock m., stomach about half full.
Temperature, immediately after walking two and a half
miles, 101 1°. 1 o'clock p.m., stomach empty and clean.
Temperature 100°.

Experiment 55.

At 2 o'clock p. m., same day, he dined on boiled fat
pork and bread. Digested in three hours.

Experiment 6Q.

January 14. — At 9 o'clock a. m., I put a solid piece of
rib-bone of an old hog, weighing ten grains, into a vial,
containing three drachms of pure gastric juice, taken
from the stomach this morning. Placed it in the axilla,
and continued it there for twelve hours ; then placed it
on the shelf, in a cool place, till next morning.

January 15 9 o'clock a.m., surface of bone evidently

204 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

dissolv-ed. Fluid quite opaque. Took out the piece ;
and when wiped and dried with blotting paper, as dry as
when put in, it weighed just nine grains. Immersed it
again in the same juice, and placed it on the sand bath
at 100°. Continued it in that temperature for twelve
hours, frequently agitating it ; then, as yesterday, placed
it on the shelf until next morning.
Jan. 16. — 9 o'clock a.m., appearance similar to yesterday
morning. Juice a little more turbid. Bone covered
with a thin, cineritious coat. Taken out and wiped, the
piece weighed eight and a half grains. Immersed again
in same fluid, and continued on bath twelve horn's ; then
set on shelf again until next morning.

Jan, 1 7. — 9 o'clock a. m., very little alteration since yes-
terday. Bone taken out and wiped, weighed eight and
a quarter grains. Put in again, and continued on bath
fifteen hours.

Jan. 18. — 12 o'clock m., no change effected since last ex-
amination. Bone taken out and wiped, weighed precisely
same as yesterday, eight and a quarter gi*ains. Conceiv-
ing the solution of the bone had ceased from a deficiency
of the gastric solvent, I now added one drachm fresh gas-
tric juice, and continued it on the bath again, for eight
hours.

Jan. 19. — 12 o'clock m., bone taken out, and wiped, as
usual, weighed eight grains. Returned to bath, and con-
tinued twelve hom's, it v.eighed seven and a half grains.
Returned, and continued on bath thirty-six. hours, and
frequently agitated between.

Jan. 20. and 25. — No visible change was effected.

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 205

Weight same as on the 19th, seven and a half grains.
The solution having ceased again, I added three drachms
more of gastric juice, and continued it on the bath twen-
ty-four hours.

Jan. 27. — 10 o'clock a. m., laraintE of bone separated,
and opening on one edge. Fluid more opaque, with a little
fine, brown sediment, precipitated to the bottom of the
vial. Weight of bone, five and a half grains. Added
two drachms of gastric juice, and continued it on the bath
for eighteen hours.

Jan.2^. — 10 o'clock A.M., laminae of bone opened. Weight-
four grains. Returned, and continued on bath twelve
hours. — Jan. 29- 10 o'clock a.m., laminse of bone entirelv
separated, thin as paper, and elastic as horn. Weight,
three and a quarter grains. Returned to bath twelve
hours — Jan. 30. 10 o'clock a.m., opacity of fluid, and fine
sediment, increased. Weight of bone, two and three-
fourth grains. Continued on bath. — Jan. 31. 10 o'clock
A.M., no change since yesterday. Weight of bone two
and three-fourth grains. Added half a drachm of gas-
tric juice, and continued it on bath twelve hours.

Feb. 1 — 10 o'clock a.m., laminse very thin and elastic.
Weight of bone, two and a half grains. — Took out the
pieces of bone, and put them into one drachm fi-esh gas-
tric juice, in a separate vial, and continued on bath six
hours. — Feb. 2. 10 o'clock a.m., weight of bone, two and a
quarter grains. Continued on bath six hours. — Feb. 3. 10
o'clock A.M., weight of bone, two grains, Continued on

bath tiU the fifth Feb. 5.10 o'clock a.m., no change since

the 3d. Weight of bone same. Added two drachms

206 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

gastric juice, and continued on bath twelve hours. — Feh.
6. 10 o'clock A. M., bones nearly all dissolved — three-
fourths of a grain only remaining. — Feb,7. Weight of bone
half a grain, very thin and transparent. The solution not
being quite completed, I added two drachms more of
gastric juice, and continued it on bath twelve hours. — Feb.
8. 10 o'clock A.M., all dissolved to a mite, quarter of a
grain, or less.

After the solution of the bone, the menstruum was a
greyish-white opaque fluid, nearly of the colour and con-
sistence of clear thin gruel, with considerable fine brown
sediment at the bottom of the vial, after standing at rest
awhile ; and had a peculiarly insipid sweetish taste and
smell — not the least fetor or rancidity.

Remarks. — It mil be seen in this experiment, that the
piece of bone was dissolved in proportion to the quantity
of gastric juice applied, and that the solution ceased at
longer or shorter intervals, as a larger or smaller quantity
was added. When the juice became saturated as well
as when the vial was removed from the bath to a low
temperature, the solution ceased. It appears that it took
fourteen and a half drachms of gastric juice to dissolve
ten grains of solid bone.

Experiment 57.

Jan. 1 5 — At 8 o'clock, a. m., weather cloudy and
dry : wind N. E. and light ; ther. 35*; temperature of
the stomach, 100°. At 9 o'clock, a.m., he breakfasted
on fat pork and bread. 2 o'clock, p. m., stomach empty
and clean; temperature, lOT.

experiments and observations. 207

Experiment 58.

At 2 o'clock, p. M., same day, I put fifteen grains of
raw heef steak, divided into small pieces, into three
drachms of gastric juice ; and fifteen grains of broiled beef
steak, into other three drachms of gastric juice. At the
same time, I put the same quantity of broiled steak, di-
vided like the others, into three drachms of saliva, fresn
from the mouth. I then placed them, all together, alter-
nately in the axilla and on the bath, and kept frequently
agitating them. At 4 o'clock, the meat in the saliva ex-
hibited the appearance of simple maceration ; the other
two parcels, in the gastric juice, were considerably dimi-
nished and partially dissolved, the fluid of an opaque
whitish colour ; the cooked piece, rather the most dis-
solved.

At 6 o'clock, the salivary portion was not much changed
in appearance ; the other two about half dissolved ; the
cooked meat in advance of the raw. At 9 o'clock, the
salivary portion began to smell slightly fetid, and to
change colour. The other two were perfectly bland, and
of a sweetish flavour — the meat about three-fourths dis-
solved, with a fine brownish-red sediment at the bottom
of the vials. Took them all off the bath, and placed them
on the shelf till next morning.

At 7 o'clock A.M., on the l6th, I placed them again on
the bath till 9 o'clock, when the salivary portion had be-
come fetid, and was of a greenish colour. The fibres of
the meat retained their shape and size ; and had become
pale on the surface. Light loose coagulae had fallen to

208 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

the bottom, leaving a reddish-green coloured fluid above.
The gastric portions were almost completely dissolved ;
the cooked meat still in advance. At 12 o'clocl^ m., the
salivary portion was very fetid. The remaining portions
of aliment, taken from the three vials, filtered through
thin muslin, and dried with blotting paper, weighed as
follows ;- — the broiled meat, in gastric juice, one grain ;
the raw meat, in the same, two and a half grains ; and
that in the saliva, twelve grains.

Remarks. — This experiment demonstrates that saliva
does not possess the properties of a solvent ; but facili-
tates putrefaction. See also subsequent experiments. It
also shews, that raw meat is susceptible of digestion by the
gastric juice, though in a less degree than cooked meat.

Experiment 59.

Jan. 17 — At 9 o'clock a,m. ; weather clear and dry ;
wind N.W., and light; ther. 19° ; temperature of stomach,
100° ; coats clean and healthy ; extracted ten drachms
of gastric fluid, not so clear and limpid as usual ; some
streaks of yellow bile, and more appearance of saliva than
common — acid not so perceptible as usual. I divided
this into three equal parts, three and one third drachms
each. To one part I put fifteen grains firmly coagulated
albumen (white of egg), — to the other, fifteen grains ot
the soft coagulae of the same — and to the third, fifteen
grains raw albumen — and placed them on the bath and
in the axilla, alternately. At tlie same time, he breakfasted
on three hard boiled eggs, bread and coffee. At 11

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 209

O'clock, examined — stomach /ull. Temperature, 100°.
Some small red soots. Contents acrid. At 1 2 o'clock
M. — just returned from walking one mile, and back again.
Weathel clear, dry, and serene. Wind N.W. and light.
Th. 23°. Temperature of stomach 102° — nearly empty.
Took out one ounce, almost completely chymified ; a
little pure oil floating on the surface. Put this on the
bath. At 12 o'clock, 30 mins., stomach empty. At 9
o'clock P.M., examined the parcels of albumen, placed in
the vials of gastric juice this morning, at 9 o'clock. Of
the firm coagulse there remained one and a quarter grains ;
of the soft, none ; of the raw, three-fourths of a grain, in
loose white coagulae.

Experiment 60.

Jan. 17 At 12 o'clock, 30 minutes, m., I put twenty-
five grains lean broiled mutton^ divided into small pieces,
into five drachms of gastric juice, and same quantity into
five drachms of gastric juice and fi^esh saliva mixed to-
gether, and placed them on the bath.

At 9 o'clock p. M. the meat remaining in the gastric
luice, taken out and dried with paper, weighed just twelve
grains ; that in the mixture of gastric juice and saliva
weighed eighteen and three-fourth grains. The texture
of the first was considerably more dissolved and tender
than the second. Returned them into their respectiv
vials again.

At 12 o'clock, 30 minutes, m., of the 18th examined
them again. The meat remaining in the gastric juice
weighed five and three-fourth grains; was soft, gluti-

210 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

nous, and of a dirty brown colour. That in the gastric
juice and saliva weighed thirteen and a quarter grains ;
the texture was quite firm, and retained its fibrous form
and reddish bloody colour. Put them in the bath again.
At 4 o'clock p. M. of the 1 9th the meat in the gastric
juice weighed two grains. Consistence and colour of
fluids same as yesterday. The meat in the gastric juice
and saliva weighed nine and a half grains. Fluids of a
reddish-brown colour, and less precipitate. In ten days
the salivary mixture became very putrid, but the gastric
portion was perfectly sweet, and so continued for thirty
days or more.

Experiment 61.

Jan. 1 8. — With a view to ascertain the antiseptic pro-
perties of the gastric juice, I took a portion of very pu-
trid animal matter, and added to it a quantity of gastric
juice. The fetor was at once almost completely correct-
ed, leaving only a slight putrescent smell, with the usual
flavour of the gastric juice.

Experiment 62.

At 9 o'clock A. m. same day extracted one and a half
drachms of gastric juice, and added it to two and a half
drachms of milk. The whole was formed into loose white
coagulae in less than five minutes. At 1 o'clock p. m. re-
maining coagulae, after filtering through muslin, weighed
thirteen grains. Returned it into the vial, and placed it
on the bath again. At 9 o'clock no coagulae remaining ;
all completely dissolved.

experiments and observations. 211

Experiment 63.

Jan, 19 — =At 9 o'clock a. m. coats of stomacli perfect-
ly healthy and clean. No appearance of morbid action ;
tongue clean, and every indication of perfect health.
There was no free fluid in the gastric cavity until after
the elastic tube was introduced, when it began slowly to
distil from the end of the tube drop by drop, perfectly
transparent, and distinctly acid. I obtained about one
drachm of this kind, and then gave him a mouthful of
bread to eat. No sooner had he swallowed it than the
fluid commenced flowing more freely from the tube, and
I obtained two drachms, less pure, however, with saliva
and mucus mixed with it, and slightly tinged with yellow
bile. The surface of the protruded portion of the villous
coat at this time became covered with a limpid fluid, uni-
formly spread over its whole surface, distilling from my-
riads of very fine papillary points, and trickling down the
sides. After letting him rise and walk about two or three
minutes, I again introduced the tube, and obtained about
two drachms more of very pure gastric juice, making in
the whole five drachms.

Breakfasted on boiled pork and bread. Dined and
supped on the same.

Experiment 64.

Jan. 20. — At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m. examined
stomach ; appearances healthy. Extracted three drachms
gastric fluids, coloiu*ed with bile, slightly acid and bitter.
It ran more freely than yesterday. At 8 o'clock, 45 mi-

212 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

nutes, he swallowed four ounces of pure gelatine (ich-
thyocoUa) prepared with boiling water, transparent, and
of a tremulous consistence. At 9 o'clock" stomach ap-
peared nearly as full as usual after eating his ordinary
meals ; fluid clear, and of the consistence of the albumen
of eggs. It appeared to be the gelatine dissolved, or dif-
fused in the gastric juice. The juice and the liquid ge-
latine so much resembled each other that I could not dis-
tinguish them apart.

At 9 o'clock, 45 minutes, examined again ; found the
stomach almost entirely empty ; was just able to obtain
two drachms of fluid. It appeared to be a mixture of
gelatinous chyme, gastric juice, and flocculi of mucus,
more opaque and ropy than the gastric juice alone, and
more acid than the fluids of the stomach immediately be-
fore the gelatine was swallowed. Not the least appear-
ance of bile or yellow colour in the gastric cavity or fluids
after taking the gelatine ; considerable vertigo followed
the extraction of this last fluid. It soon passed over,
and he ate his breakfast {jporh and bread) with his usual
appetite.

Remarks, — The process of the solution of gelatine is
difficult to ascertain. It is not subject to coagulation,
and the action of the gastric juice is not easily perceived.
It is no doubt dissolved by the gastric juice, in the same
manner as other aliment is. See subsequent experiments.

Experiment 65.
To ascertain whether the sense of hunger would be

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 21 3

allaj-ed without the food being passed through the oeso-
phagus, he fasted from breakfast time till 4 o'clock p. m.,
and became quite hungry. I then put in at the aperture
three and a half drachms of lean boiled beef. The sense
of hunger immediately subsided, and stopped the bor-
borygmus or croaking noise caused by the motion of air
in the stomach and intestines, peculiar to him since the
wound, and almost always observed when the stomach is
empty.

Remarks, — This experiment proves that the sense of
hunger resides in the stomach, and is as well allayed by
putting the food directly into the stomach as when the
previous steps have been gone through with. Not that
I would deny the utility of the previous processes in or-
dinary cases. Even the sense of taste is essential. It is
placed as a sentinel, to prevent improper articles from
being introduced into the stoma^ch. See also subsequent
experiments.

Experiment QQ.

Jan. 21 . — At S o'clock a. m. examined stomach. Could
obtain but few drops of gastric juice. Sent him to exer-
cise in the open air for half an hour. Secretions in-
creased ; gastric juice flows pure and more freely. Ex-
tracted three drachms. At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, he
breakfasted on bread and coffee, and a small piece of lean
pork. At 2 o'clock p. m. stomach empty. Extracted
two drachms of gastric juice, tinged with yellow bile, and
then one drachm of pure transparent juice, distilling by
drops from the end of the tube.

214 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

At 2 o'clock, 30 minutes, 1 put ten grains of raw suet
into two drachms of gastric juice tinged with bile, and
ten grains of the same into two drachms of pure gastric
juice. Placed them both on the bath. At 9 o'clock the
piece of suet 'in the juice that was tinged with bile was
considerably more dissolved than that in the clear gas-
tric juice ; and, when examined with the compound mi-
croscope, the globules appeared more numerous and much
smaller. This appearance was also clearly perceptible to
the naked eye as the mixtures stood in the vials. At 10
o'clock the piece in the yellow juice was all dissolved ;
the other not entirely.

Remarks This, with other subsequent experiments,

indicate that oily or fatty food is sooner digested when
there is a small admixture of bile with the gastric juice.

Exercise, it seems, promotes the discharge of the gas-
tric juice, as well as digestion in the stomach.

Experiment 67.

Jan. 22 At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m., stomach

clean and healthy. Extracted five drachms of very clear
pure gastric juice. The first three drachms ran out quite
freely ; the other two drachms distilled by drops. It was
not the least tinged with bile, and tasted distinctly acid.
Breakfasted on beefsteak^ bread, and coffee. At 1 o'clock
p. m. stomach empty.

Experiment 68.
At 9 o'clock p. m. same day, St Martin having eaten

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 215

nothing since 2 o'clock, and feeling quite hungry, I put
into the stomach, at the aperture, eight ounces of beef
and barley soup, introduced gently through a tube with
a syringe, lukewarm. It caused no unpleasant sensation,
but allayed the sense of hunger. It satisfied the appe-
tite, and he said he had no desire to eat. At 10 o'clock
he said he felt a little hungry again, and ate eight ounces
more of the same kind of soup, which had a similar effect
as the other.

Experiment 69.

Jan, 23. — At 9 o'clock a. m. weather rainy ; wind N.E.
and light ; thermometer 39°- Stomach empty, clean, and
healthy; temperature of stomach 100|°.* Breakfast-
ed on sausage^ bread, and coffee. At 10 o'clock aspect
of weather same as at 9 o'clock ; thermometer 40° ; sto-
mach full of fluids; temperature 101|°. The spirit be-
came stationary at that point after keeping the tube in
the aperture eight or ten minutes, after which it did not
vary for ten minutes when it was taken out. At 12
o'clock M. he returned fi-om a walk of two miles. Sto-
mach nearly empty ; temperature 101^° stationary, after
being continued five minutes in the stomach. At 12
o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach empty.

Experiment 70.
Jan. 24. — At 8 o'clock a.m. weather cloudy and damp ;

* In this and the subsequent experiments I used a spirit ther-
mometer, taken from Pool's barometer, which varied half a de-
gree from those formerly used.

216 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

wind N. and moderate ; thermometer 39°. Stomach
empty, clean, and healthy ; temperature 100^°. Ex-
tracted four drachms gastric juice, very little tinged with
yellow. At 9 o'clock he returned from a short walk. Tem-
perature of stomach the same. Breakfasted on bread and
coffee. 12 o'clock, stomach empty. Temperature of the
stomach, after walking two miles or more, 101 J°.

Experiment 71.
At 1 o'clock P.M., same day, St Martin complaining of
being quite hungry, I put into the stomach, at the aper-
ture, twelve raw oysters, more than middling size. The
sensation was allayed, and the appetite satisfied the same
as if swallowed. He was not hungry again till half after
4 o'clock, when he ate a dozen more of the same kind of
oysters with bread. At 10 o'clock p.m. stomach empty
and clean. Weather damp and rainy. Wind N. E. and
brisk. Temperature of the stomach, 992°* He had been
covered in bed, and sleeping, for two and a half hours,
from which I awoke him to introduce the thermometer.
He fell asleep again during the examination — only awoke
while putting in and taking out the glass tube.

Experiment 72.

January 25. — At 6 o'clock a.m. ; wind southerly
and light; thermometer 36° ; examined stomach before
rising from his bed ; temperature 99° ; extracted fifteen
drachms gastric fluid. It flowed out unusually free ;
was rather more opaque, and contained less fiocculi of
mucus than common, for the quantity. Particles of the

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 217

bread eaten with his oysters, at 4 o'clock 30 minutes,
yesterday, were distinctly to be seen in this parcel of the
juice. At 8 o'clock 30 minutes ; temperature of the
stomach 100|° ; coats clean and healthy ; thermometer
38°. At 9 o'clock he breakfasted on raio oysters and
bread. 11 o'clock, temperature of stomach 101°. 12
o'clock M., he returned from a walk of two miles ; sto-
mach empty ; temperature 102°.

Experiment 73.

January 26 — At 8 o'clock a. m. ; weather clear and
cold ; wind N. W. and light ; thermometer 30° ; sto-
mach healthy, empty, and clean ; temperature 100J°.
Extracted one drachm gastric juice, containing more than
usual flocculi of mucus. At 9 o'clock he breakfasted on
sausage, bread, and coffee. 10 o'clock thermometer 34° ;
temperature of the stomach 1 00|°, and full of a heteroge-
neous fluid. 12 o'clock m., returned from a walk ; stomach
empty; temperature 101° and a fraction; weather clear
and pleasant; thermometer 39; wind N.W. and moderate.

Remarks. — From this, and other experiments, it may
be clearly inferred, that in the most natural and healthy
states of the stomach, there are little or no fluids of any
kind in the "gastric cavity, until excited by aliment or
other irritants ; and that digestion, under this condition,
is the most rapidly and perfectly performed.

Experiment 74.
At 2 o'clock p. M. same day, he dined on raw oysters

218 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

and bread. 5 o'clock, stomach empty. At 6 o'clock, 40
minutes, immediately after drinking a tumbler of water,
of the temperature of 55°, introduced thermometer —
spirit rose very slowly, and did not become stationary at
the natural temperature until the tube had stood in the
stomach for thirty-five minutes. 12 o'clock at night,
temperatiu-e 99|°, after sleeping in bed three hours.

Experiment 75.

Jan. 27. — At 6 o'clock a. m. ; before rising fi^om his
bed ; weather cloudy and dry — calm ; thermometer
32= ; stomach empty, clean, and healthy ; temperature
991% spirits stationary in ten minutes. He swallowed a
gSl of water at the temperature of 55°, which immedi-
ately diffused itself over the interior of the stomach, and
discharged some at the aperture, by the side of the stem
of the thermometer, which had not been withdrawn.
The spirit immediately fell to 70° ; stood at that point
one and a half or two minutes, and then began again very
slowly to rise. Thirty minutes elapsed after taking the
water before the spirit regained the 99th degree. Be-
fore the end of that time there was no appearance of
water in the gastric cavity. At 9 o'clock, 30 minutes,
he ate a full breakfast of fresh broiled beef, mostly fat,
bread and coffee^ and continued unusually smart exercise,
walking for two hours, till he became fatigued, and per-
spired freely. At 1 1 o'clock, 30 minutes ; weather clear ;
thermometer 43° ; just returned from walking ; sto-
mach contained considerable chyme and pil ; aliment
about two-thirds gone ; temperature 101°. At 12 o'clock

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 219

20 minutes, m., stomach nearly empty ; a small portion
of the fluid still remaining, reduced to a more perfect
chymous condition, with less oil, and that in much finer
globules ; appeared tinged with yellow, and tasted bitter.
At 1 o'clock P.M., chyme gone ; very little oil remaining.
At 2 o'clock, weather unchanged, temperature of sto-
mach 101 J°. No chyme to be seen. A few particles of
oil still remaining, floating on the surface of a small quan-
tity' of fluid, exhibiting considerable spumous froth and
mucus.

A circumstance occurred here, not before observed in
my experiments, which it may not be unimportant to
mention, f.^. — the variations of the temperature observed
in moving the thermometer up or down in the stomach.
The spirits in the tube varied proportionably to the
length of the stem introduced. "VMien the bulb sank
down to the pyloric portion of the stomach, to the depth
of six or eight inches, the spirit rose to 101 J° ; when
only inmiersed two or three inches, it would stand at
100|°, making a difference of three-fourths of a degree.
These variations were uniformly observed at every ther-
mometrical examination.

Be77iarks. — Perhaps the difference of indication of the
thermometer, may result from a more complete envelope-
ment of the stem in the gastric ca^-ity, at the pyloric ex-
amination, and a less one at the splenic. I give the
reader possession of the fact, without pretending to ac-
count for it with certainty.

Experiment 76.
At 2 o'clock. 30 minvites, p.m., same dav, he dined on

220 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

raw oysters and bread. 4 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach
not empty ; food about half gone ; small pieces of heart
of oyster, and pulp of bread, to be seen floating in a thin
pultaceous fluid, quite acrid and sharp ; no bitter taste
or yellow colour. Temperature 101^°.

A striking peculiarity in the movement of the spirit
in the thermometer was observed in this experiment. It
rose from about 68° to its stationary point, 100|°, in less
than five minutes after the bulb was put into the stomach.
At last examination, 2 o'clock, it was fifteen minutes in
making the same range. Sometimes it has been twenty-
five or thirty minutes before it became stationary, and
under no appreciable difference of circumstances. He
had been moderately exercising (walking) immediately
before the last examination.

At 5 o'clock he returned fi-om walking ; temperature
of stomach 101|° ; spirit rose, and became stationary
at that point in less than three minutes ; food almost com-
pletely chymified, and half gone. jTook out one ounce
of thick pultaceous porridge-fike fluid, with some small
pieces of the hearts of the oysters, reduced to a jelly-like
appearance ; plainly acid, and slightly bitter ; and had
the flavour of the oysters. At 6 o'clock, 15 minutes,
stomach empty and clean. At 6 o'clock, 30 minutes, he
ate a full meal of cold boiled beef (considerable fat) and
bread. 10 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach empt5\

Experiment 77.

At 9 o'clock A.M. of the 27th, I mixed one drachm of
the clear decoction of coffee with three drachms of fresh

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 221

gastric juice, with a view to ascertain whether it would
destroy tiie flavour of the coffee. It had no perceptible
effect. The flavour of coffee remained for ten hours, as
distinct as at first. Added half a drachm of loaf sugar to
the mixture, and placed it on the bath. It remained there
forty-eight hours. No different effect was produced on
the flavour of the coffee. It remained the same as at
first.

Remarks. — It is probable that the decoction of coffee,
like many other artificial drinks, does not admit of diges-
tion ; possesses no nutritive principles ; and is carried
into the circulatory system without much change.

Experiment 78.

At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p. m- of the 27th, I put fif-
teen grains firm beef cartilage into three drachms of gas-
tric juice, and placed on bath. At 10 o'clock a.m. of the
28th took out and wiped dry, it weighed six and three-
fourth grains. At 10 o'clock a. m. of the 29th, it weighed
one grain.

"VMien put in, the cartilage was cut into different
sized pieces ; these retained their original forms till com-
pletely dissolved, the largest piece being the last digested.

Experiment 79*

January 28. — At 6 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m ^before

rising ; weather clear and dry ; wind S.W. and Hght ;
thermometer 35° ; stomach empty, clean, and healthy •,
temperature 100° and a fraction, — spirit stationary in

222 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

five minutes. No gastric juice could be procured. Ex-
tracted about half a drachm of fluids, principally mucus.

At 8 o'clock, 45 minutes, — temperature of the sto-
mach 100|° when thermometer was put three or four
inches only into the splenic portion, but rose to 101°
when the bulb was let down eight or nine inches, to-
wards the pyloric extremity.

A circumstance occurred here which I had not noticed
before. On settling the stem down into the stomach, a
strong contraction of the muscular fibres was indicated
when the bulb had descended near to the pyloric end,
by a sudden and peculiar movement of the tube, com-
municated to the thumb and finger that guided it, and
also felt by St Martin himself. The stomach appeared
to contract at that point forcibly, and grasp the bulb^
giving it a sudden impulse downwards, so much so as to
require a quick compression by the thumb and finger to
prevent it fi'om slipping suddenly into the pyloric end.
This grasping sensation would continue for half a minute
or more, and then appear to relax again. This ac-
tion occurred every time the bulb passed this point,
either up or down. When the bulb was below this point,
the spirit rose three-fourths of a degree; when raised
above, it fell the same. Sometimes the suction-motion
was stronger than at others, and when the stem was re-
leased from the fingers, it would be drawn down towards
the pyloric end, its whole length, ten or eleven inches,
occasioning considerable distress, vertigo, and a sense of
sinking at the scrobiculus cordis.

At. 9 o'clock, he breakfasted as yesterday, and kept

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 223

quiet most of the time in a recumbent position, on a
couch. At 1 1 o'clock, aspects of weather same as in the
morning ; thermometer 46° ; contents of stomach about
two-thirds diminished; temperature 100|°, at three or
four inches deep, and a fraction less than 101 1° when
sunk to the pyloric extremity, varying proportionably
to the length of the stem introduced. At 1 2 o'clock, 30
minutes, m. stomach nearly empty; temperature 101°.
At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach empty ; temperature
100|°, splenic end, 101^°, at pyloric end.

Experiment 80.

At 2 o'clock p. M. same day, he dined the same as yes
terday, on raw oysters and bread. Temperature of sto-
mach, immediately before eating, 101 J°, at pyloric extre-
mity ; 100|° at splenic end. At 4 o'clock, 30 minutes,
stomach half empty ; temperature 101|° at pyloric ex-
tremity ; rose quick ; took out one drachm of the chyme ;
digestion nearly complete ; a few particles of bread and
oyster to be seen. At 5 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach
nearly empty; temperature 101 1°, pyloric extremity;
rose quick. At 6 o'clock, stomach still contained ali-
mentary fluids ; quite acrid and sharp. At 6 o'clock, 40
minutes, stomach empty. At 7 o'clock, he supped on
boiled beefsLud bread.

Experiment 81.

January 29. — At 6 o'clock a. m., before rising —
weather clear and dry ; wind N E. and brisk ; thermo-
meter 28° ; stomach perfectly healthy, empty, and clean ;

224 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

temperature 100°, at pyloric extremity, and 99° at the
other. No gastric secretion. Could not extract ten
drops of either gastric juice, mucus or saliva.

At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, stomach empty ; coats per-
fectly healthy, and free from any appear'ance of aphthae,
pustules, or red spots ; the mucous coat was even and
\miform, soft and smooth ; temperature from 100^° to
1 oof ° ; rose quick. Extracted three and a half drachms
pure gastric juice, containing some flocculi of mucus, but
no bile.

At 9 o'clock, he breakfasted on sausage and bread,
and kept exercising; vi^alking smartly for two hours.
Returned from walking at i 1 o*clock, 30 minutes ; sto-
mach two-thirds empty ; temperature 102° and a fraction,
at pyloric end, and 101 1° at the other; rose quick. 12
o'clock, 30 minutes, m., stomach almost empty ; "tempe-
rature 101 1,° and 100|°; rose moderately. 1 o'clock
p. M. stomach empty.

Experiment 82.

At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p. m., same day, he dined on
stewed oysters and bread, and kept still. 5 o'clock p. m.
stomach empty ; extracted three and a half drachms pure
gastric juice. At 6 o'clock, 45 minutes, stomach empty ;
temperature 10tf° and ipO|°; rose moderately.

Experiment 83.

January 30. — At 6 o'clock, 30 minutes, a.m., weather
cloudy and damp ; wind N E. and light ; thermometer
39° ; stomach empty, clean, and healthy ; temperature^

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 225

immediately before rising, 99|° and 98|° ; rose slowly.
At 9 o'clock, temperature of stomach 101 1° and 100|°
rose quick ; extracted three drachms gastric juice ; it
came slowly, the last mixed with yellow bile. He break-
fasted on beefsteak, bread, and coffee. At 11 o'clock,
stomach almost empty; temperature 101|° and 100^°.
When the bulb of the glass-tube descended towards the
pyloric extremity, the stomach evidently contracted upon
it, and drew it forcibly down. If left free to its. own
motions, the tube would sink to the pylorus, the whole
length of the stem, ten or eleven inches, and then rise
again of its own accord. When drawn above this point
of apparent contractions into the splenic end of the sto-
mach, towards the perforation, the motion of the bulb
was reversed, in a direction towards the fundis of the
stomach, not inclining, however, to make its exit at the
perforation, but took a sort of irregular motion, revolving
the tube from right to left, so as to turn it completely
around in the space of ten or fifteen seconds. This mo-
tion was not always present, nor constantly continuous
when present, but interrupted, and alternate with the
appearance of contraction at the pyloric end, and dis-
tinctly evident only from about one and a half to three
hours, or more, after eating, and at a time when the
chyme was most rapidly leaving the gastric cavity.

At 12 o'clock, 30 minutes, m., he returned from a smart
walk, — ^had been all the morning, since breakfast, hard
at work wheeling coal, an unusually severe exercise ;
temperature 102° and 100|° ; rose quick; stomach
empty.

226 experiments and observations.

Experiment 84.

January 29. — At 9 o'clock, 30 minutes, a.m. — To
two drachms of gastric juice, I put one small raw oyster,
weighing one drachm ; and to another two drachms of
gastric juice, I added one drachm of stewed oyster, set
them on the bath, and agitated them frequently. At 5
o'clock, 30 minutes, p. m. the residue of the raw oyster
weighed four grains, — that of the stewed, weighed eight
and three-fourth grains. Continued them on bath.
At 9 o'clock A.M. of the 30th, the raw oyster was com-
pletely dissolved, not a particle left, except a trace of
dirty-brown sediment, the excrementitious part. A grain
only of the heart of the stewed oyster was left, with a
trace of the same kind of sediment as in the raw one.
The flavour of the oysters was retained to the last, and
even the chymous mass partook of it.

Remarks In the article here submitted to the action

of the gastric juice, cooking hardens the fibre, and ren-
ders it less susceptible of digestion than the raw. This
is what we should a priori judge, from the known pro-
perties of the solvent.

Experiment 85.

January 30. — At 10 o'clock a. m. I put ten grains of
boiled lean beef, ten grains of raw lean beef, each piece
whole and undivided, and ten grains boiled lean beef,
chopped fine, into three drachms fresh gastric juice, and
placed them on the bath, frequently agitating as usual.

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 227

At 12 o'clock M. of the 31st, examined and weighed
them. The raw piece weighed the same as when first
put in, the lean boiled beef weighed eight grains, the
chopped three grains. Added two drachms gastric juice.
At 10 o'clock A. M., February 1st, balance of chopped
meat weighed one grain, boiled piece, five grains, raw
ten grains.

Experiment 86.

January 29. — At 10 o'clock a.m., I put three equal
parts of cabbage, one part raw, another boiled, and the
third shaved fine (raw) and macerated in vinegar, ten
grains each, into three drachms of gastric juice, and placed
them on the bath.

At 5 o'clock, 30 minutes, p. m., I took out and pressed
dry the respective parcels. They weighed as follows :
the shaved, three and three-fourth grains ; the raw, five
and a half grains ; the boiled, six and a quarter grains.
At 10 o'clock a.m. of the 30th, took out and examined —
the raw weighed five and a quarter grains, the shaved
three and a half grains, and the boiled the same as yes-
terday evening, six and a quarter grains. I added two
drachms gastric juice, and continued them on the bath.

At 12 o'clock A. M. of the 31st the raw weighed two
grains, the shaved one and a half grains, boiled five grains.
Added one drachm of gastric juice. February 1. — Raw
weighed one grain, shaved one grain, boiled two and a
half grains.

Experiment 87.
January 30. — At 2 o'clock p. m. he dined on raw oys-

228 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

ters and bread, and kept still. 5 o'clock, 30 minutes, sto-
mach empty; temperature 101|° and 100|° ; spirit rose
moderately. 6 o'clock, 45 minutes, he supped on raw
oysters and bread. 10 o'clock, stomach empty.

Experiment 88.

January 31. — At 6 o'clock a.m., before rising, wea-
ther rainy ; wind N.E. and light ; thermometer 45° ; sto-
mach empty, clean, and healthy; temperature 100° and
98|° ; rose moderately. No fluids in the gastric cavity ;
could obtain but half a drachm. The peculiar contrac-
tion and relaxation or suction and pulsion-motion, were
evidently excited this morning by the introduction of the
thermometer, but not near so strong as during chymifi-
cation. When the bulb is sunk down low into the sto-
mach, and suffered to remain there a minute or two, it
gives severe pain and distress at the pyloric extremity,
like the cramp or the sensation frequently described by
persons suffering from undigested food in the stomach,
and leaves a sense of soreness if repeated a few times, as
was very evident this morning.

At 9 o'clock temperature of stomach 101 1° ; he break-
fasted on two and a half ounces of beefsteak, four and a
half ounces soft toast, and coffee. At 9 o'clock, 30 mi-
nutes, he laid himself down on his pallet, and I set the
thermometer into his stomach, and continued faithfully
and constantly to observe its motions and variations one
hour and forty minutes, until ten minutes past eleven,
two hours and ten minutes after eating. At first the sto-
mach was full to overflowing of heterogeneous fluids, in

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 229

much commotion, as indicated by the movement of the
aUment, and of that part of the stem left out of the aper-
ture nearly four inches. This commotion continued
about half an hour, to ten o'clock. It then seemed to
subside ; the general muscular action became less, as in-
dicated by the stem of the thermometer and motion of
the fluids, until half after ten o'clock, when a different
motion appeared to commence, indicating considerable
forcible contraction upon the bulb of the tube, now about
six inches from the aperture towards the pylorus. An
irregular turning and twisting of the stem, and a simul-
taneous downward movement, was succeeded by an ap-
parent relaxation and expulsive motion. These alternate
motions and appearances continued to recur every two
or three minutes — not uniformly, but at irregular inter-
vals. A sense of distress and uneasiness was felt at the
point where the bulb lay every time these contractions
recurred, so as to occasion involuntary manifestations of
pain, expressed in the muscular motions of his face. The
thermometer did not perceptibly vary, during all this
time, from the usual standard temperature of the interior
of the stomach. It was 101|° at the pyloric extremity,
and 100^° in the splenic end, and continued so during
the whole time, ranging between these two points accord-
ing as it was moved higher or lower in the gastric cavity.
At this time, 11 o'clock, 10 minutes, the stomach was
about half empty, and chymification rapidly advancing.

At 12 o'clock, 30 minutes, m. the stomach was
empty and clean; temperature 101|° and 100| ; ex-
tracted two and a half drachms gastric juice.

230 experiments and observations.

Experiment 89.

February 1. — At 6 o'clock a. m., before rising, wea-
ther clear ; wind N.W. ; thermometer 28° ; stomach
empty, clean, and healthy; temperature 100° and 99^° ;
rose moderately ; no gastric juice secreted. At 8
o'clock weather clear, and growing cold ; thermometer
26°. Temperature of stomach, immediately before go-
ing out, 101° and 100°. Returned in 30 minutes; tem-
perature of stomach the same ; extracted four drachms
gastric juice. At 9 o'clock he breakfasted on breads sau-
sage, and coffee, and kept exercising. 1 1 o'clock, 30 mi-
nutes, stomach two-thirds empty ; aspects of weather si-
milar ; thermometer 29° ; temperature of stomach 101 1°
and 100|°. The same appearance of contraction and di-
latation, and alternate piston motions were distinctly ob-
served at this examination. 1 2 o'clock, 30 minutes, sto-
mach empty.

Experiment 90.

At 2 o'clock p. m. same day he dined on potatoes and
meat. 5 o'clock, weather clear and pleasant ; wind N.W.
and light ; thermometer 32° ; stomach nearly empty ;
temperature 102° and 101 1°, after walking. 5 o'clock,
30 minutes, stomach empty.

Experiment 91.

February 2 — At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, St Martin

finished breakfasting on full meal, of two and a half ounces

fried sausage, seven and a half ounces warm corn bread,

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 231

and a pint of coffee. Kept gently exercising for one hour,
and then increased his exercise to severe walking two or
three miles, for two hours ; stomach full when he started,
at 9 o'clock 45 minutes. At 12 o'clock m. returned
from walking ; stomach not entirely empty ; oil and
bread perceptible. 12 o'clock, 30 minutes, considerable
fluid in the stomach, tinged with yellow bile ; no dis-
tinct particles of food to be distinguished. 1 o'clock p. m.
stomach empty and clean ; extracted two drachms pure
gastric juice.

Remarks. — Severe exercise in this instance is supposed
to have retarded digestion, as well as the peculiar kind
of food eaten.

Experiment 92.

At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p. m. same day, he dined on
four ounces of fresh boiled beef (cold) and five ounces
bread, and continued walking smartly for three and a half
hours, till 4 o'clock 45 minutes p. m. ; stomach nearly
empty ; dinner almost completely chymified. 5 o'clock
stomach empty.

Experiment 93.

February 3 At 8 o'clock, 45 minutes, extracted four

drachms gastric juice. He breakfasted on full meal, two
and a half ounces boiled beef, seven and a half ounces
bread, and one pint of coffee, and kept perfectly still.
12 o'clock, 30 minutes, m. stomach not empty. 1 o'clock

232 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

P. M. Stomach empty and clean ; extracted one and a
half drachms gastric juice.

Remarks — This indicates that a complete state of re-
pose is unfavourable to speedy digestion.*

Experiment 94.

At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p. m. same day, he dined on
four ounces fresh boiled heef, five ounces of bread, and
potatoes. 6 o'clock, stomach not entirely empty, but none
of the meat remaining. 6 o'clock, 1 5 minutes, very lit-
tle of the bread and potatoes to be seen. 6 o'clock, 30
minutes, stomach empty.

Experiment 95.

February 3 — At 1 2 o'clock m. I put two equal and
entire pieces oi parsnip, ten grains each, one boiled and
the other raw ; the same kinds and quantities of carrot ;
and the same oi potato, into four drachms of gastric juice,
and placed them on the bath. At 12 o'clock m. on the
4th, the vegetables, taken out and wiped, or filtered as
dry as when put in, shewed the following result : —

The piece of raw parsnip weighed three grains, the
boiled one grain ; raw carrot three and one-fourth
grains, boiled half a grain ; raw potato eight and a half

* A state oi continued repose is certainly unfavourable to diges-
tion, but many circumstances indicate that repose, or only mo-
derate exertion for a short time, say an hour after a full meal, fa-
vours its digestion.— Editor.

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 233

grains ; boiled, no entire particle could be distinguished ;
a fibrous and farinaceous residuum of six grains remain-
ed on the filter. At 12 o'clock a. m. on the 5th the pieces
of parsnip and carrot were almost entirely dissolved, a
grain or two of the raw carrot and fibrous centre of the
parsnip only remaining. About a grain of the roughish-
white farina of the boiled potato remained. The raw po-
tato was a little softened and wasted on the surface, but
weighed the same as at last examination, eight and a half
grains.

Remarks. — This is an illustration of the necessity of
tenderness and susceptibility of division of the articles of
diet, for speedy solution by the gastric juice. The raw
potato retained nearly its weight after the other articles
were dissolved.

Experiment 96.

At 3 o'clock p. M. same day I took two equal quantities,
two drachms each, of saliva, acidulated to about the fla-
vour of gastric juice, one with acetic, and the other with
muriatic acid, and put into each two pieces of parsnip
and two of carrot, one of each boiled, and the other raw,
each weighing ten grains, and placed them on the bath.

At 3 o'clock p. M. on the 4th the carrot in the saliva
and muriatic acid had lost nothing, the parsnip only two
grains. In the acetous menstruum both kinds remained
the same as when put in. The fluids of both were un-
altered in their sensible qualities and appearances.

After continuing them on the bath, with fi-equent agi-

234 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

tation, for twenty-four hours longer, the parsnip in the
muriatic menstruum had lost four grains, the carrot no-
thing. The parsnip in the acetic mixture had lost six
grains, and the carrot four grains, but appeared to have
been rather macerated and diffused than dissolved or di-
gested.

I now mixed them all together, and continued them on
the bath for twenty-four hours longer ; at the end of which
the whole remaining mass of vegetable matter weighed
twelve grains. The fluid appeared now a little more
chymous, and was rather turbid.

Remarks. — This is an example of a species of solution
performed by chemical agents having some resemblance
to digestion. It is not at all probable, however, that this
mixture was in a state of preparation for the action of the
pancreatic and hepatic fluids ; but, if placed in the sto-
mach, would require the same action of the gastric juice
as other diet would.

Experiment 97.

February 4. — At 9 o'clock a. m. he breakfasted on two
and a half ounces of boiled beef, six ounces of bread, and
one pint of coffee. Exercised smartly for three hours.
At 12 o'clock, 30 minutes, m. chymification complete ;
stomach empty.

Experiment 98.

February 5. — At 9 o'clock a. m. he breakfasted same
as yesterday, and kept still. 1 1 o'clock, stomach nearly

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 235

fiiU. 12 o*clock M., considerable yet in the stomach,
oil and bread plainly to be seen. 12 o'clock, 30 minutes,
contents of stomach not yet gone. 1 o'clock p. m., sto-
mach almost empty. 1 o'clock, 15 minutes, stomach
empty.

Experiment 99.

February 7 At 8 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m., I put

twenty grains boiled codfish into three drachms gastric
juice, and placed them on the bath.

At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p. m., fish in the gastric juice
on the bath was almost dissolved, four grains only re-
maining ; fluid opaque, white, nearly the colour of milk.
2 o'clock, the fish in the vial all completely dissolved.

Experiment 100.

February 7. — At 9 o'clock a. m. breakfasted on boiled
codfish and bread. Digested in four hours and a half.

Experiment 101.

February 8 — At 10 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m., I put
two parcels, ten grains each, of strong cheese, one masti-
cated and the other an entire piece, into three drachms
gastric juice. At 6 o'clock p. m. the masticated portion
was all completely digested, scarcely a trace left on the
filter. The entire piece had lost four and three-fourth
grains, five and one-fourth grains remaining undissolved,
and of the same shape as when put in, having lost its su-
perficies only. This piece continued gradually to diminish
for twenty-four hours, when it was completely dissolved.

236 experiments and observations.

Experiment 102.

February 12. — At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p.m. he dined
on mutton^ and barley soup and bread. Digested in three
and a quarter hours.

Experiment 103.

February 13. — At 2 o'clock, 15 minutes, p. m. he dined
on mutton, and barley soup and bread. Digested in three
and a quarter hours.

Experiment 104.

February 14. — At 9 o'clock a. m. I took forty grains
masticated broiled beefsteak, divided into two equal parts ;
put one into four drachms gastric juice, and the other into
four drachms of a mixture of dilute muriatic and acetic
acids, reduced with water to the flavour of the gastric
fluid as nearly as practicable, three parts of the muriatic
to one part of the acetic. Placed them together on the
bath. At 6 o'clock p. m. the meat in the gastric juice
was all dissolved ; that in the dilute acids, when filtered,
left a residuum of nine grains, of a jelly-like consistence.
The fluids also differed in appearance. That from the
gastric juice was opaque, and of a lightish-grey colour,
depositing a brown sediment on standing. The other
was also opaque, and of a reddish-brown colour, but de-
posited no sediment.

Remarks. — This was an attempt to imitate the gastric
juice. It was not satisfactory. Probably the gastric juice

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 237

contains some principles inappreciable to the senses or to
chemical tests besides the acid and alkaline substances
already discovered in it.

Experiment 105.

At the same time of the above experiment (104) I put
the same quantities of pure divy gelatine (ichthyocolla) into
exactly similar quantities and kinds of fluids, and placed
them all together on the bath.

At 6 o'clock p. M. the gelatine in the gastric juice was
all completely dissolved, that in the dilute acids, after be-
ing placed on the filter, left a residuum of three grains, of
a jelly-like substance. These two fluids differed in ap-
pearance. That from the gastric liquor was of an opaque
whitish colour, with little fine brown sediment ; that fi*om
the acid menstruum was also opaque, but of a reddish-
brown colour, and of a thin mucilaginous consistence,
with no sediment.

One drachm of infusion of nutgalls added to the gas-
tric solution, immediately aflPorded a rich cream-like fluid,
and slowly precipitated a fine compact sediment. The
same quantity of infusion of gall^ added to the other im-
mediately formed the whole mass into a coarse brown
coagulum. After standing a while, it afforded a large
loose brownish sediment, and a light-coloured fluid, which,
on standing, became white as milk, and the sediment be-
came compact, and remained so.

The precipitates, after the addition of the tan, taken
out and filtered, weighed as follows ; — that in the gastric
solution eighteen grains ; the other forty grains ; the dif-

238 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

ference of weight being about equal to the quantity of
gelatine put in.

Experiment 106.

February 1 5 At 9 o'clock, 45 minutes, a. m. repeat-
ed the last (105) experiment with gelatine^ and the gas-
tric juice and dilute acids in the same proportions.

At 3 o'clock, 15 minutes, p. m. the gelatine in gastric
juice all dissolved to a mere mite ; that in acid mixture
nearly so, six grains only remaining on the filter, of a
jelly-like consistence. The fluid of the gastric portion
had a bluish-white colour, and the other yellowish, or
about the colour of dry gelatine.

At 6 o'clock, the gelatine in the acid menstruum all
dissolved. Fluids of both nearly similar.

One drachm infusion of nutgalls added to each, in-
stantly formed loose lightish-coloured coagulae in both,
threw down a compact sediment in the gastric solution,
and left an opaque milky fluid. The coarse coagulae in
the acid menstruum continued suspended throughout
the mass of fluids, for a long time gradually subsiding.
At the end of forty-eight hours, it had become precipi-
tated to the bottom into a compact mass, and exhibited
distinct particles of the entire undissolved gelatine, mixed
with a dirty white-coloured curd-like substance, j

Experiment 107.

February 15 — At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p. m., he dined
on boiled cod-fish and bread. Digested in four hours
and a half.

experiments and observations. 239

Experiment 108.

February 16. — At 1 o'clock, 45 minutes, p.m., he dined
on mutton soup and bread. 6 o'clock, stomach empty.
Digested in four hours and a quarter.

Experiment 109.

February 19. — At 9 o'clock a.m. I put twenty grains
of boiled fat pork, cut fine, into three drachms of clear
gastric juice, and the same kind and quantity into three
drachms of gastric juice, strongly tinged with yellow bile,
with a view to ascertain whether there be any diflPerence
in their solvent effects upon fat meats. Placed both
upon the axilla. At 1 o'clock p. m. the pork in the gas-
tric juice, tinged with bile, dissolved to less than one
grain, — that remaining undissolved in the clear juice
weighed two grains and a half.

Experiment 110.

February 20. — At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p.m., I put
three parcels, ten grains each, of boiled cod-fish, into
three separate portions of gastric juice, oTvQpure, another
containing bile, and the third, a clear, limpid, slightly
acid fiuid, taken from the stomach after active exercise
and profuse perspiration, in more abundant quantity than
usual. Placed them all on the bath.

At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p.m., of the 21st, I took out
and weighed the three parcels of fish. The result was
as follows ; — that in the pure gastric juice weighed two
and a half grains, that in the yellow, three grains, and the
other, six grains.

240 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

JRemarks. — This shews that other than oily food is
retarded by the admixture of bile in the gastric juice.

Experiment 111.

February 23. — At 9 o'clock, 45 minutes, p.m., I took
out two parcels, one drachm each, of gastric juice, one
pure, and the other of the clear limpid fluid, extracted
under the circumstances mentioned in the last experi-
ment, and put eight grains of lean beef, finely cut, into
each, and placed them on the bath together. After being
treated alike on the bath for six or eight hours, the resi-
duum in the pure gastric juice weighed three grains ;
and that in the limpid fluid, six grains and a half.

Experiment 112.

February 24. — At 9 o'clock, 30 minutes, a.m., having
extracted gastric juice, containing a large proportion of
yellow bile, I put twenty grains of strong cheese, cut
small, into two drachms of it, and the same quantity and
kind of cheese, into two drachms of pure gastric juice,
placed them together on the bath. At 9 o'clock p.m.,
residuum in the yellow juice weighed five grains, that in
the clear juice six grains ; returned them to the bath.
At 9 o'clock A.M. of the 25th, the cheese in the yellow
juice all dissolved, of that in the clear juice, two grains
remained.

Experiment 113.

March 26. — At 8 o'clock, 15 minutes, weather clear;
stomach empty and healthy; introduced thermometer

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 241

(Poors glass) three-fourths the length of its tube, eight
or ten inches, and continued it five minutes ; spirit sta-
tionary at 100|°.

At 9 o'clock, suspended through the aperture into the
stomach, enclosed in a muslin bag, forty grains of broiled
fresh cod-fish^, previously masticated, and imbued with
saliva ; and he immediately afterwards breakfasted on the
same kind of fish, a small quantity of breads and coffee,
and kept exercising moderately.

At 11 o'clock, stomach full of fluids. 2 o'clock p. m.
chymification complete ; bag empty.

Experiment 114.

March 27. — At 9 o'clock, 15 minutes, a.m., he break-
fasted on fresh broiled fish (flounder J, bread, and coffee^
and kept exercising moderately. 11 o'clock, stomach
half empty ; pulp of bread only appeared. 1 1 o'clock,
30 minutes, particles of fish and bread still to be seen in
the stomach. 1 o'clock p.m. stomach entirely clear of
food; temperature 101°.

Experiment 115.

1 took dilute muriatic acid, reduced it to the strength
and taste of the gastric juice, as nearly as practicable, three
drachms ; dilute acetous acid, to about the same flavour,
one drachm — mixed them together, and put into the
mixture, one scruple of broiled steak, cut fine ; and the
same quantity and kind of meat into four drachms of gas-
tric juice. Placed both on the bath. In six hours and
three quarters, the meat in the gastric juice, taken and

242 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

and filtered, weighed two grains only ; that in the acid
mixture, treated in the same way, was not dissolved, but
had lost its fibrous fiarm, and was converted into a tre-
mulous jelly-like mass, too tenacious to pass through the
filter, and weighed more than v^hen first put in. It did
not appear like chyme, nor resemble that in the gastric
juice.

After digesting eight hours longer on the bath, the
contents of the acid mixture had become nearly dissolved
or diffused, and when run through the filter, left only a
very little of the jelly-like mass, so abundant in the first
examination. The liquid was now more like, though not
exactly similar, to that of the gastric portion ; this being
opaque, and of a lightish-grey colour, affording a dark-
brown sediment on standing ; that from the acid men-
struum, was also opaque, of reddish-brown colour, but de-
posited no sediment.

Two drachms of the infiision of nutgalls, added to the
gastric portion, threw down a fine reddish-brown preci-
pitate, and afforded an opaque fluid of similar colour.
Two drachms of the infusion, added to the acid mixture^
threw down a more copious precipitate, and left a clearer
and thinner fluid, of a yellowish colour, and nearly trans-
parent.

Experiment 116.

A drachm of the concentrated disinfecting solution of
chloride of soda, prepared according to the formula of
Labarraque, was added to a drachm of an extremely pu-
trid mixture of beef, macerated in water, — the putridity

NOTE BY THE EDITOR. 243

speedily disappeared, but not more so when a drachm of
pure gastric juice was added to a similar quantity of the
same putrid mixture.

Note hy the Editor,

The unsuccessful results obtained by Dr Beaumont
from attempting to digest animal food in diluted muriatic
and acetic acids, as detailed in several of the preceding
experiments, coincide very closely v/ith those described
by Muller and Schwann of Berlin, in the " Archiv fiir
Anatomic und Physiologic," for 1836, and an abstract ot
which is given in the British and Foreign Medical Re-
view for July 1 837. The object which these gentlemen
had in view was to test the accuracy of Dr Eberle's as-
sertion, that " although neither diluted acids nor mucus
separately possess the power of dissolving organic sub-
stances, that property resides in acidified mucus, which
is capable not only of dissolving muscular fibre and albu-
men, but also of entirely changing their chemical nature,
by converting them into osmazome and salivin."* They
began, accordingly, by investigating the action of diluted
acids upon animal substances, and found, as Dr Eberle
had affirmed, and as the preceding experiments also shew,
that nothing resembling digestion takes place. Long
maceration in diluted muriatic acid served only to sepa-
rate the muscular fibres, but never reduced them into
pulj). When, however, a small quantity of mucus was

* Prit. and For. Med. Review, July 1037, p. 20J..

244 NOTE BY THE EDITOR.

conjoined with the acid, by adding a portion of the mu-
cous coat of the stomach of a calf, for example, a distinct
digestive power was immediately manifested, and the
whole of the fibre was dissolved.

Schwann was at much pains to ascertain in what way
the acid and mucus respectively act in bringing about
digestion ; and the conclusion to which he was led is,
that the acid acts indirectly and merely as a predisposing
agent in the decomposition, exactly as the diluted acids
act in the conversion of starch into sugar when boiled.
Dr Eberle considers the digestive principle to reside in
the mucus, but Dr Schwann's experiments prove that this
is not the case, and lead him to infer it is either a new
principle formed by the action of the acid upon the mu-
cus, or some other peculiar principle which exists in the
latter, in small quantity, but essentially distinct from it.
Hitherto all Schwann's attempts to obtain the digestive
principle, whatever it may be in an isolated form, have
failed. It ought to be mentioned also, that his experi-
ments apply only to substances which are digested in
the same manner as albumen, and that the " diges-
tive liquor " produced no other change upon gelatine,
casein, starch, and gluten, than what is produced by
simple acidified water. This latter fact seems to me
to shew that however much the digestive liquor may
resemble the natural solvent in some particulars, it must
still be very different from it in others, for the natural
fluid dissolves all kinds of food, whatever their chemical
composition. — Editor.

MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS. 245

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATIONS.

The following microscopic examinations were made
with Jones's compound microscope, in presence of Pro-
fessor Dunglison and of Captain H. Smith of the army.
They afford, however, very little information on the sub-
ject of digestion, and shew that no very satisfactory re-
sults are attainable from microscopic examinations of
chyme.

I. Pure gastric juice exhibited the appearance of wa-
ter, except that there were perceptible a very few minute
globules.

II. The chymous product of the gastric juice and un-
masticated lean beef, exhibited globules of various sizes,
resembling those of the blood, having a transparent centre
and opaque mai'gin, with various very fine filaments of
apparently undigested fibrine.

III. Product of gastric juice and albumen, exhibited
appearances resembling considerably those presented by
the gastric juice alone, — ^no distinct globular arrangement.

IV. Chyme from gastric juice and tendon of veal, ex-
hibited numerous minute, apparently fleshy, particles, —
no globular appearance.

V. Chyme from gastric juice, and fowl and bread, in
the comparatively clear portion (taken without shaking
the vial), exhibited a few undissolved particles, and very
few globules. A portion taken after shaking the vial,
exhibited considerably more particles, and a greater num-
ber of globuJ.es.

246 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATIONS.

VI. The product of the same kind of aliment (fowl and
bread), macerated in water, exhibited numerous undis-
solved particles, with few globules ; the globules not so
regularly formed as in the foregoing experiment.

VII. Product of gastric juice and soup, made from
fresh heef exhibited globules extremely numerous and

distinctly formed, far more so, than in any of the preced-
ing experiments,— and a few particles of meat.

VIII. Impure gastric juice, or that with an admixture
of green bile, when taken from the stomach, exhibited
numerous amorphous particles, with a few globules.

IX. Chyme, artificially formed from pork and bread,
exhibited numerous globules of different sizes, apparent-
ly oily.

X. Chymous product of gastric juice and fat pork,
formed in the stomach, exhibited a beautiful appearance
of large transparent globules, of different sizes, evidently
oily.

XI. Fat pork, macerated in purevmter, presented ap-
pearances of globules precisely similar to those in the
products of digestion.

( 247 )

FOURTH SERIES.

Plattsburgh, N. Y. 1833.

The following gastric experiments and examinations
of the stomach, have been made since the manuscript ot
the previous part of this work was prepared for the press,

EXAMINATIONS OF THE TEMPERATURE AND APPEAR-
ANCE OF THE INTERIOR OF THE STOMACH.

I. July 9 — 6 o'clock a. m. ; weather cloudy and damp ;
wind W., light ; stomach empty and clean. Introduced
glass thermometer at the aperture, bulb nine inches down
towards the pylorus, — temperature 100° Fahrenheit, be-
fore rising from his bede-
ll. July 10. — 6 o'clock a.m. ; weather clear ; wind W.,
brisk ; thermometer 63° ; stomach empty and clean ;
temperature 1 00° before rising. 9 o'clock p. m. weather
clear and calm ; thermometer 75° ; stomach empty ; tem-
perature 101° after moderate exercise in open air.

III. July 11. — 6 o'clock A.M. ; weather cloudy ; wind
N.E., brisk; thermometer ^^"^ % stomach empty and
clean ; temperature 100° before rising. 8 o'clock, 30
minutes, weather clear and dry ; wind S., brisk ; tempe-
rature of stomach 101°, after exercise. 9 o'clock, 30 mi-
nutes, p. M. weather hazy ; wind S. W., light ; thermo-
meter 75° ; temperature 101°.

248 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

IV. July 12. — 6 o'clock a.m. ; weather clear; wind
W., brisk ; thermometer 70° ; stomach empty ; tem-
perature 100|°, after going out into the open air. 9
o'clock p. M. ; weather clear ; wind W., light ; ther-
mometer 76° ; temperature 101|° ; stomach empty.

V. July 13 5 o'clock, 30 minutes a.m. ; weather

clear, serene, and calm ; thermometer 69° ; stomach
empty, healthy, and clean ; temperature 99|°j before
rising from his bed. 6 o'clock, 30 minutes ; weather
same as at last examination ; stomach empty ; tempe-
rature 100|°, after rising and walking out in the open air
twenty or thirty minutes. 6 o'clock, 45 minutes ; re-
turned from a smart walk, exercising so as to produce
gentle perspiration ; temperature 101|°.

VI. July 1 4. — 5 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m. ; weather
variable ; heavy thunder-shower during the night ; wind
S., moderate ; thermometer 75° ; stomach empty ;
temperature 100° on rising from bed ; 100|° after walk-
ing out into the open air and immediately back. 9 o'clock
P.M. ; weather rainy, atmosphere oppressive ; thermo-
meter 79° ; wind S., light ; temperature of stomach
102'. St Martin has been in the woods all day picking
whortleberries, and has eaten no other food since 7 o'clock
in the morning, till 8 at evening. Stomach full of berries
and chymifying aliment, frothing and foaming like fer-
menting beer or cider ; appears to have been drinking
liquor too freely.

VIL July 15. — 5 o'clock, 30 minutes, a.m. ; weather
clear ; wind W., light ; air damp ; ground wet ; ther-
mometer 74° ; stomach • empty ; temperature 100°,

EXPEEIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 249

before rising. 7 o'clock, 30 minutes ; weather, wind,
&c., same as at last examination ; thermometer 74<^ ;
stomach empty ; temperature 102°, immediately after
smart exercise. 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p.m. ; weather
clear and pleasant since 8 o'clock (till within fifteen mi-
nutes, in which interim, has fallen a light shower of rain) ;
wind W., light ; thermometer 74° ; stomach empty ;
temperature 100|°. Has been at manual exercise for
four hours. 9 o'clock p.m.; weather and wind same;
thermometer 72° ; temperature 101|° ; stomach fu
of chymous fluid, oil, and pulp of bread and cakes, eaten
for supper two hours previous to examination.

VIII. July 16 7 o'clock, 30 minutes, a. m. ; weather

cloudy ; wind W., light ; thermometer 73° ; stomach
empty ; temperature 101°, after rising and before ex-
ercising. 9 o'clock p. M. ; weather cloudy, damp, and
chilly; thermometer 70°; temperature 101|°.

IX. July 28. 9 o'clock a. m. ;. weather clear ; wind
N. W., brisk ; thermometer ^^'^ '^ stomach empty ; not
healthy ; some erythema, and aphthous patches on the
mucous surface. St Martin has been drinking ardent
spirits, pretty freely, for eight or ten days past — com-
plains of no pain, nor shews symptoms of any general in-
disposition—says he feels well, and has a good appetite.*

X. August 1. — 8 o'clock a.m. Examined stomach be-
fore eating any thing ; inner membrane morbid ; con-
siderable erythema, and some aphthous patches on the

* The morbid appearances of the stomach on this and the follow-
ing days, as the result of drinking ardent spirits, are particularly
deserving of the reader's attention.— Editor.

250 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

exposed surface ; secretions vitiated. Extracted about
half an ounce of gastric juice ; not clear and pure as in
health ; quite viscid.

XI. August 2. — 8 o'clock a.m. Circumstances and
appearances very similar to those of yesterday morning.
Extracted one ounce of gastric fluids, consisting of un-
usual proportions of vitiated mucus, saliva, and some bile,
tinged slightly v*^ith blood, appearing to exude from the
surface of the erythema, and aphthous patches, which
were tenderer and more irritable than usual. St Martin
complains of no sense of pain, symptoms of indisposition,
or even of impaired appetite ; temperature of stomach
101°.

XII. August 3. — 7 o'clock a. m. Inner membrane of
stomach unusually morbid ; the erythematous appearance
more extensive, and spots more livid than usual ; from
the surface of some of which exuded small drops of
grumous blood, the aphthous patches larger and more
numerous, the mucous covering thicker than common,
and the gastric secretions much more vitiated. The gas-
tric fluids extracted this morning were mixed with a large
proportion of thick ropy mucus, and considerable muco-
purulent matter, slightly tinged with blood, resembling
the discharge from the bowels in some cases of chronic
dysentery. Notwithstanding this diseased appearance of
the stomach, no very essential aberration of its functions
was manifested. St Martin complains of no symptoms
indicating any general derangement of the system, ex-
cept an uneasy sensation, and a tenderness at the pit of
the stomach, and some vertigo, with dimness and yellow-

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 251

ness of vision on stooping down and rising again ; has a
thin yellowish brown coat on his tongue, and his counte-
nance is rather sallow ; pulse uniform and regular ; appe-
tite good ; rests quietly, and sleeps as well as usual.

XIII. Augicsf 4. — 8 o'clock a.m., stomach empty ; less
of those aphthous patches than yesterday ; erythematous
appearance more extensively diffused over the inner coats,
and the surface inclined to bleed ; secretions vitiated.
Extracted about an ounce of gastric fluids, consisting of
ropy mucus, some bile, and less of the muco-purulent
matter than yesterday ; flavour peculiarly fetid and dis-
agreeable ; alkalescent and insipid ; no perceptible acid ;
appetite good ; rests well, and no indications of general
disease or indisposition.

XIV. August 6. — 8 o'clock a.m., stomach empty;
coats less morbid than yesterday ; aphthous patches mostly
disappeared; mucous surface more uniform, soft, and
nearly of the natural healthy colour ; secretions less vi-
tiated. Extracted two ounces gastric juice, more clear and
pure than that taken for four or five days last past, and
slightly acid ; but containing a larger proportion of mucus,
and more opaque than usual in a healthy condition.

XV. August Q. — 8 o'clock a. M., stomach empty; coats
clean and healthy as usual ; secretions less vitiated. Ex-
tracted two ounces gastric juice, of more natural and
healthy appearance, with the usual gastric acid flavour,
complains of no uneasy sensations, or the slightest symp-
tom of indisposition ; says he feels perfectly well, and has
a voracious appetite ; but not permitted to indulge it to
satiety. He has been restricted from full, and confined

252 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

to low diet, and simple diluent drinks, for the last few
days, and has not been allowed to taste of any stimulating
liquors, or to indulge in excesses of any kind.

Remarks — Diseased appearances, similar to those
mentioned above, have frequently presented themselves
in the course of my experiments and. examinations, as the
reader will have perceived. They have generally, but
not always, succeeded to some appreciable cause. Im-
proper indulgence in eating and drinking, has been the
'most common precursor of these diseased conditions of
the coats of the stomach. The free use of ardent

SPIRITS, wine, beer, OR ANY INTOXICATING LIQUOR,
WHEN CONTINUED FOR SOME DAYS, HAS INVARIABLY

PRODUCED THESE MORBID CHANGES. Eating voraciously,
or to excess ; swallowing food coarsely masticated, or too
fast ; the introduction of solid pieces of meat, suspended
by cords, into the stomach ; or of muslin bags of aliment
secured in the same w^ay, almost invariably produce si-
milar effects, if repeated a number of times in close suc-
cession.

These morbid changes and conditions are, however,
seldom indicated by any ordinary symptoms, or particu-
lar sensations described or complained of, unless when in
considerable excess, or when there have been corres-
ponding symptoms of a general affection of the system.
They could not, in fact, in most cases, have been antici-
pated from any external symptoms ; and their existence
was only ascertained by actual ocular demonstration.

It is interesting to observe to what extent the stomach,

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 253

perhaps the inosf important organ of the animal system,
may become diseased, without manifesting any external
symptoms of such disease, or any evident signs of
functional aberration. Vitiated secretions may also take
place, and continue for some time, without affecting the
health, in any sensible degree.

Extensive active or chronic disease may exist in the
membranous tissues of the stomach and bowels, more
frequently than has been generally believed ; and it is
possible that there are good grounds for the opinion ad-
vanced by a celebrated teacher of medicine, that most
febrile complaints are the effects of gastric and enteric
inflammations. In the case of the subject of these ex-
periments, inflammation certainly does exist, to a con-
siderable extent, even in an apparent state of health —
greater than could have been believed to comport with
the due operations of the gastric functions.

Note by the Editor.

The preceding observations, which demonstrate the
production of diseased appearances in the stomach by ir-
ritating causes continued in operation for several days,
seem to me of great practical value, and to afford some
of the strongest arguments which it is possible to obtain
in favour of temperance in eating, as well as in drinking.
Many persons who habitually indulge in the use of sti-
mulants, although not to what is called excess, defend the
practice by affirming that they experience no bad effects

254 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

from them, and that if they did harm, they would not
fail to feel it. St Martin, however, affords a remarkable
example of palpable disease being invariably produced
in the stomach by drinking freely of spirits, beer, or wine,
or intemperate eating ; and yet such disease being, for a
considerable time, attended by no general symptom suffi-
ciently distressing to arrest his attention. He, therefore,
might, with equal truth, have argued that such indul-
gences did him no harm, because he ^e^^ none; and yet
if his inflamed stomach, so different in appearance from
its healthy state, had been presented before his eyes, re-
flected in a mirror, there would have been an end to all
argument, for the fact was unassailable. In his instance
there was also the favourable circumstance, that his ge-
neral mode of life was healthy and regular, and that his
aberrations were so temporary in duration as not to inflict
permanent injury.

The circumstance of slight disturbances of digestion
not being attended with marked symptoms, arises from
the stomach not being endowed with the ordinary nerves
of sensation, the function of which is to feel pain. The
stomachic nerves are speciall}^ adopted to the functions
of the stom-ach, and consequently, when the food is suit-
able in kind and quantity, we are not at all conscious of
its presence. When the food is improper in kind, or ex-
cessive in quantity, we are conscious only of discomfort
in the region of the stomach, but from the absence of
nerves of touch, we are not conscious what the offending
cause is, and it is only when great irritation is excited that
pain follows. It is from this constitution of the stomach

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 255

that digestive derangement so often steals on unperceived,
and becomes confirmed before the attention is aroused to
the magnitude of the evil. Inconvenience may have been
long felt, but disregarded as a reason against indulgence.
If, like St Martin, we could see the progress of stomachic
disease from its- first dawn, dyspeptic complaints and their
parent intemperance would be less frequent than they are.

EXPERIMENTS, &c.

Experiment 1.

September 18. — At 8 o'clock, 45 minutes a.m., St
Martin breakfasted on four ounces q^ fresli salmon trout,
fried, three ounces o^ bread, and drank half a pintof w«^er.
The coats of the stomach w^ere not perfectly healthy ;
some aphthous patches and dark red spots to be seen on
the mucous surface ; gastric juice slightly viscid ; acid
taste distinctly perceptible. At 10 o'clock, 15 minutes,
stomach entirely empty ; breakfast completely chymified
and gone ; nothing but a little gastric juice and fiocculi
of mucus, remaining in the stomach.

Experiment 2.

Sept. 18. At 2 o'clock p.m., he dined on six ounces of
boiled, fresh, salmon trout, three ounces of bread, and a
potato, and drank half a pint of water. Continued at
work, sawing and splitting wood. He had eaten nothing
from the time he took his breakfast ; had been at hard
work all the time ; looked, and said he felt, quite fatigued.

256 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

At 3 o'clock, 30 mins., stomach about half full of a
nearly homogeneous semi-fluid, of a rich milk or cream
colour, and about the consistence of fine corn-meal gruel
— a few small particles of the fish, and some of the pota-
to could be distinguished. 4 o'clock, 15 mins., stomach
empty and clean.

Experiment 3.

Sept. 20. At 1 o'clock, 15 mins., p.m., he dined on
three ounces fat pork, and one pint of corn and beans
(green), two ounces of bread and half a pint of water ;
and kept exercising. Digested in three hours and three
quarters.

Experiment 4.

Sept. 21. At 8 o'clock a.m., he breakfasted on eight
ounces of beef's liver, broiled, two ounces of bread, and
drank half a pint of water. Continued usual exercise.
9 o'clock, 30 mins., stomach full of partially chymified
food, considerable oil (melted butter), floating on the
surface ; black pepper mingled with it, and emitting a
strong aromatic odour of the spice. 10 o'clock, 30 mins.,
stomach empty and clean. Extracted two drachms of
gastric juice.

Experiment 5.

At 1 o'clock, 30 mins., p.m., same day, St Martin dined
on one pint of rich beef and vegetable soup, made of the
joint, marrow-bone and muscle of the leg of an ox, three
ounces of bread, and continued moderate exercise. 3

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 257

o'clock, 1 5 mins., stomach nearly full of thick, greyish-
white, porridge-like semi-fluid, with a thick pellicle of oil
floating on the surface. 4 o'clock p.m., stomach empty.

Experiment 6.

Sept. 30. — At 7 o'clock, 30 mins,, a.m., he breakfasted
on bread and milk, and continued his usual exercise. 8
o'clock, 30 mins., stomach nearly full of milky fluid, pulp
of bread and coagulae. 9 o'clock, contents of stomach
considerably diminished since last examination — took out
a portion, nearly chymified ; very little fine coagulae per-
ceptible ; bread in small particles, reduced to a greyish
soft pulp ; the menstruum of a whitish whey-colour and
consistence. 9 o'clock, 30 mins., chymification complete ;
stomach empty and clean.

The portion taken out of the stomach at 9 o'clock, put
into a vial, and continued in the axilla till twelve o'clock
m., was almost completely chymified ; small pulpous par-
ticles of bread only discernible ; the fluid of a rich whey,
or gruel colour and consistence ; a little loose, light-co-
loured sediment fell to the bottom, on standing.

Experiment 7.

Oct. 1 — ^At 1 o'clock, 30 mins., p.m., St Martin dined
on boiled fresh, lean beef, potatoes and bread, and conti-
nued his usual exercise. 4 o'clock, 15 mins., stomach
empty.

Experiment 8.
Oct. 2. — At 1 o'clock, 30 mins., p.m., he dined on same

258 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

kind of food as yesterday, lean boiled heef, potatoes and
bread, dressed with a liberal quantity of strong mustard
and vinegar, and continued the same exercise. 3 o'clock,
30 mins., stomach nearly full of heterogeneous mixture.
At 4 o'clock, 30 mins., stomach still contains chyme and
some undissolved food ; fluids taste and smell quite
strongly of the mustard ; complains of more smarting at
the edges of the aperture than usual ; some slight morbid
appearance on the mucous surface. 5 o'clock, stomach
empty.

JRemarks — These two last experiments were made un-
der almost exactly similar conditions of the stomach, with
a view to notice the effects of this kind of stimulating
condiment. The result was, that it apparently retarded
the process of digestion ; no other appreciable cause ex-
isted, for this difforence of result. The stomach present-
ed the usual healthy appearance immediately previous to
the ingestion of the meal. Nothing occurred to interfere
with or interrupt the digestive functions- The slight
morbid appearance on the mucous surface, towards the
close of chymification, I conceive to have been more the
effect of the over-excitement of the mustard than any
other cause.

It would seem then, that stimulating condiments, instead
of being used with impunity, are actually prejudicial to
the healthy stomach. They can only be required, and
taken with benefit, when the gastric apparatus is languid
and relaxed, and requires stimulants to excite the tone
and action of its vascular tissues.

experiments and observations. 259

Experiment 9.

Oct, 3. — At 2 o'clock, 35 minutes, p.m., St Martin ate
nine ounces o^raiv, ripe, sour apples. 3 o'clock, 30 mins.,
stomach full of fluid and pulp of apples ; quite acrid, and
irritating the edges of the aperture, as is always the case
when he eats acescent fruits or vegetables. 4 o'clock,
stomach not empty ; contents more sharp and acrid ; pulp
of apple still to be seen. 4 o'clock, 40 mins., stomach
empty ; morbid appearance of the gastric surface consi-
derably increased.

Experiment 10.

Oct, 7.- — At 8 o'clock A.M., he breakfasted on beansoup,
made vnXh fresh beefsnad bread ; digested in three hours ;
and at 2 o'clock p. m., he dined on the same, which was
digested in three and a quarter hour%.

Experiment 11.

Oct, 10. — ^At 8 o'clock A.M. ; weather fair; wind W.,
light ; thermometer 61 °; stomach emptyandhealthy; tem-
perature 101° after moderate exercise; breakfasted on
baked potatoes and bread. 10 o'clock, stomach nearly
empty ; a little chymous fluid to be seen ; quite acrid ;
temperature 101 1°, after usual exercise ; 10 o'clock, 45
mins., stomach empty ; temperature 101 1.

Experiment 12.

At 2 o'clock P.M., same day ; weather hazy ; wind S,,
moderate ; thermometer 6l° ; stomach empty and healthy;

260 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

temperature 101 1°, after exercise ; dined on roast beef,
bread, potatoes, and boiled cabbage. 4 o'clock, wind S.
W., brisk — raining ; thermometer 61° ; stomach half full
of heterogeneous mass of acrid fluid, oil, beef, and cabbage ;
temperature 103° ; had been smartly exercising for two
hours. 7 o'clock, 30 mins., wind and weather same as at
4 o'clock ; thermometer 63° ; stomach empty ; tempera-
ture 102°. — Exercise continued moderately till this ex-
amination.

Remarks,- — In this experiment, the temperature of the
stomach rose to 103°, one degree higher than I have ever
before observed it to rise ; and chymification was pro-
tracted.

Whether these two circumstances were occasioned by
unusually increased exercise, and the consequent fatigue
of the system, or from the nature of the aliment eaten,
and the unusual fulness of the meal, I am not able posi-
tively to say ; but am inclined to think, from previous ob-
servations, that they are attributable to the latter — as the
usual morbid appearances, consequent on too fiill alimen-
tation, followed this meal in the course of twenty-four or
thirty- six hours — as may be seen by the two subsequent
experiments.

Experiment 13.

Oct. 1 1 — 7 o'clock, 30 mins., a.m. ; weather fair ; wind
N.W., brisk ; thermometer 32° ; stomach empty ; tempe-
rature 100J% after moderate exercise in open air. 8
o'clock, 45 mins., wind and weather same ; thermometer
38°; stomach empty ; temperature 102" — had been smart-

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS, 261

ly exercising, shovelling dirt, for an hour or more, and
was quite warm. Breakfasted on stewed veal and bread.
1 1 o'clock, stomach not empty ; temperature 1 02° — con-
tinues exercise. 12 o'clock, stomach contains a very
little chymous fluid, and a trace of the muscular fibres
of the veal. 12 o'clock, 30 mins., stomach empty.

Experiment 14.

At 2 o'clock p. M., same day, he dined on fried veal
and bread, and continued moderate exercise. 6 o'clock,
30 mins., stomach empty; temperature 101f°; some
morbid appearance on the mucous surface. At 8 o'clock,
30 mins., weather fair and calm ; thermometer 36'* ; sto-
mach empty ; slightly morbid, with few aphthous spots,
temperature 101 1, had been still and quiet for three or
four hours.

Experiment 15.

Oct. 12 — kt 7 o'clock, 30 mins., a.m. ; weather hazy,
wind S., light ; thermometer 36 ; stomach empty — coats
not entirely healthy — some erythema and aphthous
patches ; temperature 101°, after usual morning exercise.
8 o'clock — circumstances same as at last examination ;
temperature 101° ; breakfasted on fresh beef, fried dr7/, and
bread. 10 o'clock, stomach full of fluids ; particles of
beef, bread and oil distinctly to be seen ; temperature
101°. 12 o'clock, stomach empty.

Experiment 16.
Oct. 1 3. — At 7 o'clock, a. m, ; weather rainy ; wind

262 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

N.E., brisk ; thermometer 42° ; stomach empty ; tempe-
rature 101°, after morning exercise. 9 o'clock, tempera-
ture same ; breakfasted on old salted pork, fat and lean
together (fried), four ounces of bread, and xhe yolks of six
eggs, fried hard with the pork» 1 1 o'clock, contents of
the stomach heterogeneous ; distinct particles of lean
pork, Qgg and oil to be seen ; fluid sharp and acrid ;
temperature 101°. 12 o'clock m., oil and ^^^ still to be
seen, floating in a milky chymous fluid ; the oil, or lard
on the surface, and the ^g'^, in firm coagulae, diffused
through the fluid; temperature 101°. 1 o'clock, 15
mins., P.M., stomach empty and clean ; temperature 101°;
— was quiet and inactive during this experiment.

Experiment 17.

At 2 o'clock, 20 mins., p.m., same day, St Martin dined
on six ounces of the spinal marrow of an ox, steam-cook-
ed, and seasoned with a little butter, vinegar, salt and
pepper, and three ounces of bread, 4 o'clock p. m., con-
tents of stomach a perfectly milk-white semi-fluid pulp;
temperature 102°. 5 o'clock, 10 mins., stomach empty
and clean.

Experiment 18.

At 6 o'clock p.m., he ate a full meal of boiled rice,
simply cooked in water, and seasoned with a little salt.
7 o'clock, stomach empty and clean ; not a vestige of the
rice to be seen.

Experiment 19.
Oct. 14 — At 9 o'clock a.m., he breakfasted on the aU

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 263

humen of six eggs, fried hard, in pork fat. 1 2 o'clock, 1 5
mins., M., all chymified — stomach empty.

Experiment 20.

At 1 o'clock, P.M., same day, he dined on eight ounces
boiled beef^s brains, seasoned with salt, and a small piece
of bread. 2 o'clock, stomach full of milk-white, pulpous,
or porridge-like semi-fluid ; slightly acid taste, and of a
bland insipid flavour. 2 o'clock, 30 mins., stomach al-
most empty ; scarcely any of the white pulpous mass to
be seen; temperature 102°. 3 o'clock, 15 mins., p.m.,
stomach empty and clean.

Experiment 21.

At 3 o'clock^ 30 mins., p.m., same day, St Martin ate a
small head of raw cabbage, weighing ten ounces. 5
o'clock, 45 mins., not a particle of the cabbage in the
stomach ; little albuminous or greyish chymous fluid, only
remained.

Experiment 22.

At 6 o'clock, 30 mins., p. m,, he ate six ounces boiled
leg of fresh mutton, rare done, dressed with a little melted
butter and vinegar, and two ounces of bread. 8 o'clock,
stomach empty and clean.

Experiment 23.

Oct. 15. — At 8 o'clock, 45 mins., breakfasted on three
fresh eggs, softly coagulated, by being broken and put raw
into boiling water, and three ounces of dry bread. 1 2
o'clock M., stomach empty.

264 experiments and observations.

Experiment 24.

At 1 o'clock, 30 mins., p.m., he dined on apple dump-
lings, made of wh eaten dough and sweet apples, boiled,
one and a half pounds. . 4 o'clock, all chymified, and sto-
mach empty.

Experiment 25.

Oct, 16. — At 8 o'clock, 45 mins., a.m., he breakfasted
on broiled salted pork, and bread. 1 2 o'clock m., all
chymified, and gone from the stomach.

Experiment 26.

At 1 o'clock p.m., same day, he dined on raw salted
pork, cut thin, and eaten with dry bread ; digested in
three hours.

Experiment 27.

At 4 o'clock, 30 mins., same day, he atq^ half a pound
of raw cabbage, cut fine, and macerated in vinegar. 5
o'clock, 45 mins., stomach entirely empty, not a vestige
of cabbage to be found; extracted four drachms of gastric
juice, mixed with a very little greyish-white chymous fluid.

Experiment 28.

Oct. 17. — At 9 o'clock a.m., he breakfasted on steived
salted, pork, potatoes and bread ; digested in three hours ;
extracted gastric juice.

Experiment 29.
At 2 o'clock, 30 mins., p. m., same day, he dined on

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 205

boiled mutton recently salted., squashy potatoes and bread ;
digested in three hours.

Remarks. — Some morbid spots begin to make their ap-
pearance on the mucous surface again ; grumous blood ex^
uding from several small points of the membrane ; tongue
slightly coated ; countenance rather sallow^ ; dull pain
across the forehead, and through the eyes ; appetite not
impaired ; at bed-time, put in through the aperture four
drachms of ^mc^. of aloes and myrrh^ diluted with water.
This had the effect of correcting the morbid appearance
of the stomach, and removed the pain in the head, &c.

Experiment 30.

Oct. 18— At 9 o'clock, 45 mins., a.m., he breakfasted
on boiled carrotSy and nothing else — full meal. 12
o'clock M., examined stomach ; considerable yellowish
pultaceous semi-fluid, remaining. 1 o'clock p.m., stomach
empty.

Experiment 31.

At 7 o*clock P.M., he ate three large roasted potatoes,
with a little salt — nothing else. 9 o'clock, 30 mins., sto-
mach empty.

Experiment 32.

Oct. 19. — At 9 o'clock A.M., he breakfasted on broiled
mutton Bndi pancakes ; digested in three hours and forty
minutes.

266 experiments and observations.

Experiment 33.

At 2 o'clock, 15 mins., p.m., he dined ovi stewed mutton
and pancakes ; digested in three and a half hours.

Experiment 34.

Oct. 20 — At 9 o'clock, 45 mins., a.m., he breakfasted
on one pint of sago, boiled, thick and rich, sweetened
with sugar. 1 1 o'clock 30 mins., stomach empty and clean.

Remarks. — There was no acrimony of the gastric con-
tents, or smarting of the edges of the aperture, during
the chymification of this meal, as is usual in most vege-
table and farinaceous aliments ; it seemed peculiarly
grateful to the surface of the stomach ; rendering the
membrane soft, uniform and healthy.

Experiment 35.

At 12 o'clock, M., he ate four eggs, roasted hard,
without anything else. 3 o'clock p.m., stomach empty;
no trace of the eggs to be seen.

Experiment 36.

At 4 o'clock, 30 mins., p.m., he dined on roasted duck
2iXidi fried onions. 8 o'clock, 30 mins., stomach not emp-
ty distinct particles of food to be seen. 9 o'clock, sto-
mach empty.

Experiment 37.
Oct. 21. At 9 o'clock, A.M., St Martin breakfasted

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 267

on one pint of sago, boiled and sweetened with sugar.
10 o'clockj 45 mins.j stomach empty and clean ; no ves-
tige of the sago remaining ; no acrimony of the gastric
contents, or smarting of the edges of the aperture, during
the chymifi cation of this meal.

Experiment 38.

OcU 22. — At 12 o'clock m., he ate iovx fresh eggs,
roasted hard. 3 o'clock p.m., stomach empty ; no trace
of the eggs to be seen. At 4 o'clock p.m., he dined on
roasted duck (domesticated), dressed with onions. 8
o'clock, stomach empty.

Experiment 39.

Oct. 24 — At 2 o'clock, 30 mins., p.m., he ate a pint
of soft custard, and nothing else. 5 o'clock, 1 5 mins.,
stomach empty and clean.

At 6 o'clock, he ate three ounces of strong old cheese,
and a piece of bread. 9 o'clock, 30 mins., stomach empty.

Experiment 40.

Oct 26. — At 9 o'clock a.m., he breakfasted on fricas-
seed chickens, bread and coffee. 1 1 o'clock, 45 mins.,
stomach empty and clean. At 12 o'clock m., he dined
on roast chicken, bread, and potatoes. 4 o'clock p.m.,
stomach empty.

Experiment 41.

Oct. 27-- — At 8 o'clock a.m., he breakfasted on broiled
chicken, bread and coffee. 1 1 o'clock, all digested, and

268 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

Stomach empty and clean. At 12 o'clock m., he dined
on chicken soupy with rice. 3 o'clock, stomach empty.
At 5 o'clock P.M., he ate a meal of oyster soup and crack-
ers, 8 o'clock, 30 mins., stomach empty.

Experiment 42.

Oct. 26. — 10 o'clock A.M., stomach empty, healthy
and clean. I suspended through the aperture, into St
Martin's stomach, thirty grains precisely of each of the
following articles of diet, severally masticated, and sepa-
rately contained in small muslin bags, viz : — Fricasseed
breast of chicken ; liver and gizzard of do. ; boiled salted
salmon ; boiled potato, and wheat bread ; and he kept
moderately exercising. At 3 o'clock p.m., took out and
accurately examined the several parcels. The breast of
chicken was all digested, and gone from the bag to a mere
atom, less than half a grain. The liver was almost as
completely dissolved as the breast, half a grain only re_
maining ; of the bread, about the same — ^less than a grain.
The residuum of the gizzard, consisting principally of
tendinous fascia, weighed seven and a half grains^ The
salmon twelve grains, and the potato six grains. The
bags containing these several articles, were attached to a
string, at equal distances from each other, about an inch
apart ; and I allowed length enough for them to move
freely through the stomach, and pass even to the pylorus.
They were attached in the following order: — 1st, the
breast of chicken ; 2d, liver ; 3d, gizzard ; 4th, bread ;
5th, salmon ; and 6th, potato. When I withdrew them
they appeared to be retained quite forcibly at the pyloric

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 269

end, requiring considerable force to start them at first,
but after being drawn two or three inches, they came
easily. The bags, too, appeared to have been compressed,
in proportion as they had settled into the pyloric ex-
tremity, and were emptied in about the same propor-
tion, with tlie exception of those containing the bread and
potato, which, though above, had less remaining than that
containing the gizzard. This, however, may be accounted
for, from the more difficult solubility or digestibility of
the tendinous parts of the gizzard. The bags seemed
to have been as forcibly pressed as if they had been firmly
grasped in the hand. The four first on the string (count-
ing from the lower end upwards), more so than the other
two ; and the fourth more than the third. These circum-
stances coincide with the apparent contractions of a band,
or circular muscle of the stomach, indicated by the mo-
tions of the glass tube, observed in former experiments.
In comparing the length of the string, and situation of
the bags with the stem and bulb of the tube, it brought
the fourth bag to that point in the stomach where the
contraction upon the bulb of the thermometer has inva-
riably been observed to take place ; the third bag just
below, and the fifth and sixth above it. The sensations
expressed by St Martin, on the extraction of these bags,
were also indicative of the same facts. When I first
commenced pulling the string, he complained of a sense
of pain and distress at the pit of the stomach, and towards
the pylorus, which increased while the bags were with-
drawing, and particularly at this extremity, for the first

270 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

three or four inches, till they had passed the band, into
the splenic end.

Remarks, — The effects of this experiment upon St
Martin's feelings and appearance were very manifest, and
afford interesting and important subjects of pathological
consideration. He had not eaten or drunk any thing
that morning, and felt and looked in perfect health when
the bags were introduced ; continued moderately exer-
cising, and ate nothing but a small piece of dry bread
till they were taken out.

Soon after they were suspended in the stomach, he felt
a sense of weight and distress at the scrobiculus cordis :
slight vertigo, and dimness of vision. These continued
to increase and become quite severe, accompanied, at the
latter part of the time, by slight pain in the forehead and
through the eyes, and a sense of tightness or stiffness
across the breast. His countenance had changed from a
florid healthy, to a sallow sickly appearance, during the
time of the experiment, and a soreness at the pit of the
stomach continued after the extraction of the bags, for
eight or ten hours, and had not entirely subsided the next
morning. Morbid action of the inner membranes was
evident next day, with considerable erythema and aph-
thous appearance.

-> The first, second, and third bags, were covered with a
thick mucous coat, tinged with yellow bile ; the others
had very little, or none, of this appearance. This cir-
cumstance I conceive to have been owing to the irritation
of the bag at the pyloric extremity, inviting the bile from

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 271

the duodenum to the stomach, in the latter part of this
experiment. Hence the pathological indications which
ensued. The same appearance and circumstances have
before occurred during these experiments.

The following experiments on artificial digestion, were
instituted with a view of ascertaining more particularly
the relative digestibility of many of the diflPerent kinds of
aliment used in the foregoing gastric experiments on na-
tural chymification, and to test the correctness of the re-
sults. They are minutely detailed for the purpose of
shewing the manner, progress, and operation of the gas-
tric solvent on the alimentary substances subjected to its
action. How far they may illustrate these subjects, the
reader will judge for himself.

The gastric juice was taken out of the stomach in dif-
ferent states of purity, and put into vials ; when food
was submitted to its action, it was placed in a tempera-
ture between 96° and 100*^ Fahrenheit, and kept either
in the axilla, or on a sand bath, and frequently, though
not constantly agitated.

The discrepance of results in some similar experiments
will generally be found to arise from the variable degrees
of purity of the gastric juice, or dijfiPerent circumstances
of the experiments.

Experiment 43.

September 18. — At 8 o'clock, 45mins., a.m., I put one
drachm oi fresh salmon trout, fried, and masticated, and

272 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

one drachm of ivheat bread, into two ounces of gastric
juice, taken from the stomach yesterday and this morning.
The juice was not perfectly clear, but contained some
viscid mucus. Placed them in the axilla and kept mov-
ing. 10 o'clock, 15 mins., residuum of aliment taken
out, filtered and pressed as dry as when put in, weighed
one drachm and five grains. The menstruum, after fil>
tering, was white and opaque, about the colour and con-
sistence of rich gruel. Mixed the residuum and fluid to-
gether again, and placed the vial on the sand bath, and
kept it constantly agitated iovone hour. Taken out, fil-
tered and dried as before, the undissolved re^duum now
weighed just thirty grains. The fluids had become
thicker and richer in colour and consistence. Put them
together again into the vial, and continued them on bath
and in axilla another hour, though not so constantly
agitated, as during the last hour. The residuum, treated
in the same manner as before, now weighed twenty-four
grains. Mixed together and continued in axilla two
hours more, the residuum weighed twelve grains. After
continuing three hours longer in the axilla, the undissolved
portions of aliment, consisting principally of particles of
fish skin ; weighed ^oMr grains, which became gradually
diminished during its continuance an hour longer in the
axilla. The menstruum at this time was of a rich gruelly
colour and consistence, slightly tinged with a reddish cast
or colour of the fish. Set this aside for thirty-eight or
nine hours.

September 20. — 9 o'clock a.m., food almost entirely re-
duced to chyme, of a rich lightish coloured gruelly ap-

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 273

pearance ; some few particles of the skin of the fish re-
maining undissolved, with some small apparently foreign
and indigestible substances, which were probably adven-
titiously mixed with the food.

To observe the effect produced on this chyme by the
addition of bile, and having very opportunely obtained
some from the human stomach, by the operation of an
emetic I added one drachm of this pure, albuminous,
orange-coloured bile, to six drachms of the chyme. The
first apparent change, was in the colour, which partook
of the bile ; then a slight effervescence was perceived,
and very fine coagulae were formed. The fluid became
richer in appearance, and less opaque. The foreign or
indigestible particles were more perceptible, and small
bright particles, resembling very minute scales or skin of
fish, were also quite plain to be seen.

I now divided this into two equal parts ; to one of
which I added half a drachm of dilute muriatic acid, and
set it by to subside. Examined at 10 o'clock, the 21st.
The vial containing the mixture of chyme, bile and mu-
riatic acid, exhibited the following appearance : — It had
a thick dense sediment, of a yellowish-green colour,
which occupied about one quarter of the space. The
fluid above, was of the colour of whey, and about the con-
sistence. The vial containing the mixture of chyme and
bile only, shewed the following appearance : — The sedi-
ment was not so dense, and its colour, as well as the su-
pernatant liquid, was rather more yellow. Standing at
rest a few days, the sediment, at the bottom of both vials,
became more compact ; that in the muriatic mixture

274 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

more so than the other, and was of a deeper green co-
lour ; the fluid continued of a rich whey-colour and con-
sistence, and a very thin pellicle, or small whitish floc-
culi, rose on the top, or adhered to the sides of the vial.

Experiment 44.

September 20. — At 1 o'clock, 15 mins., p.m., I put one
drachm of boiled green corn and beans, into twelve
drachms of gastric juice, and kept the vial in the axilla,
or on the bath, as usual, frequently agitating it, till
7 o'clock p. M. The residuum, at this time, taken out,
weighed twenty-eight grains, consisting wholly of the
hulls or cuticular parts of the broken kernels, and one en-
tire bean, and a kernel of corn ; the first of which weigh-
ed thirteen, and the other eleven grains, leaving four
grains of the skins of the broken dissolved grain. The
two entire kernels (the bean and the corn), were de-
signedly put in whole, to test the effect of the gastric
juice upon them, in the entire state. The other portion
of the gi'ain was mashed soft before put in. The pulpous
portion of the broken kernels was all dissolved, and ap-
peared completely chymified. The fluid was nearly as
white as milk, and of the consistence of clear rich gruel.

The gastric juice used in this experiment was conside-
rably vitiated when taken from the stomach, some thirty-
six or forty-eight hours previously, and was quite fetid
when used. This fetor was, in a great measure, correct-
ed after chymification of the food had commenced ; the
sharp acid flavour, so peculiar to forming chyme, was
increased.

experiments and observations. 275

Experiment 45.

September 2\ — At 8 o'clock, 15 mins., a.m., I put
thirty grains o^ fresh beef steak and thirty grains o^ fresh
beef^s liver (broiled and masticated), contained loosely in
separate muslin bags, into one ounce of fresh gastric
juice, and kept them in axilla. At 9 o'clock, 45 mins.,
the two parcels of aliment, taken out and pressed as dry
as when put in, weighed as follows : — The steak, seven-
teen grains ; the liver eleven grains. Put into the vial
again, and continued in the axilla till 1 o'clock p.m. The
steak weighed fourteen, and the liver eight grains. Put
into the vial again, and continued in axilla for four hours ;
no further change was effected. They both weighed the
same as at last examination. The solvent action having
ceased, I added one ounce more of gastric juice, and con-
tinued in axilla two hours and thirty minutes. The beef
weighed five grains, and the liver, four ; the residue of
the liver consisted mostly of membranous particles, like
sections of the hepatic bloodvessels, of which I conceived
them to be portions.

I now mixed them both together in one bag, and con-
tinued them in axilla, three hours, when the whole were
completely dissolved and chymified, and the bag empty ;
with scarce a trace of aliment left on the inside. The
fluid was of a greyish-white gruelly appearance. A
brownish sediment was deposited on standing.

Experiment 46.
September 22. — At 12 o'clock, 30 mins., I put thirty

276 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

grains of new cheese (masticated), into three drachms of
gastric juice, and placed it in the axilla, eight hours and
thirty minutes, when five grains of the cheese remained
undissolved, or rather unchymified, as the residuum was
in nearly a liquid form, consisting, principally of oil, com-
bined with a soft caseous substance, floating on the sur-
face of a rich milky fluid. A little very fine white com-
pact sediment at the bottom of the vial. At this time it
had acquired a strong acid or peculiar acrid taste, and
emitted a strong caseous smell, even stronger than the
cheese itself presented when put in.

Experiment 47.

At 1 2 o'clock M., I put one drachm of sago^ boiled so
as to leave some of the grains whole and entire, but soft
and gelatinous, into three drachms of gastric juice, and
kept it in the axilla. When first mixed, they were so
much alike, that they could only be distinguished from
each other by the globular forms of the grain. But by
these, however, the gastric juice could distinctly be per-
ceived to dissolve the grains of sago, till they had all dis-
appeared.

The fluid had now become more opaline and whitish,
and in two hours and twenty minutes no trace of the sago
could be discerned. At this time the fluid had become
more opaque and milky. No sediment was deposited on
standing for twenty-four hours. A slight acid was per-
ceptible.

Experiment 48.
At 1 o'clock p.m., I took three vials, the first contain-

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 277

ing two drachms oF gastric juice ; the second, two drachms
of common vinegar ; and the third, two drachms of sim-
ple water. Into each of these, I put ten grains of raw
albumen of a fresh ^^^> When first put together, they
presented the following appearances : — The albumen put
into the gastric juice, at a temperature of 76°, produced
loose coagulae in a few minutes, generally diffused through
the juice, but soon collected into a more compact mass,
and subsided towards the bottom of the vial. That put
into the vinegar, produced similar coagulas and loose
mass, and fell down. That in the vial of water produced
loose light-coloured flocculi, equally suspended through
the water, but not inclining to collect together, like the
other two.

These three parcels, kept in the axilla, and agitated
for two hours, presented the following appearances : — The
coagulse in the gastric juice, was half dissolved, and the
menstruum of a milky appearance.

Those in the vinegar and water remained the same,
and their fluids unaltered. In five hours, that in the
gastric juice was entirely dissolved, and the fluid more
opaque and white ; the other two remained of the same
appearance as at last examination ; the coagulae in the
vinegar, taken out, weighed nine grains — that in the wa-
ter was too loose and frothy to be collected and weighed.

Experiment 49-

September 25. — At 7 o'clock a.m., I put twenty grains
of light sponge cake into three drachms of gastric juice,
and kept it in axilla. It was all dissolved and chymi-

278 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

fied in seven hours. The fluid was rich, yellowish-white,
or cream colour, and of the consistence of gruel, with a
little loose, brown sediment at the bottom of the vial, af-
ter standing.

Experiment 50.

At 9 o'clock A. M., I put two purple fox grapes, one
skinned and the other entire, into six drachms of gastric
juice, and kept them in axilla six hours, with very little
alteration in their appearance ; the skinned grape, weigh-
ing, when first put in, thirty -four grains, weighed now
thirty grains, retaining its shape and texture. The whole
grape was not affected in the least, either in shape, co-
lour, or texture. It weighed fifty-four grains when put
in, and the same now. Continued in axilla twelve hours,
they remained unaltered, and weighed exactly the same
as at last examination. Added one ounce of fresh gastric
juice, and continued them in axilla twenty-four hours,
unaltered. The texture of the skinned grape was as
firm and hard as when first put in ; and the fluid was un-
changed in its appearance, except a slight foetor, percep-
tible at the end of three or four days.

This, I think, is a fair specimen of the indigestible na-
ture of this kind of fruit. *

* The inference in the text seems to me too hastily drawn, and
at variance with daily experience. Ripe grapes are well known
to be easy of digestion when masticated^ and their resistance to
the gastric juice in the above instance, must have arisen chiefly
from their being exposed to its action in their entire state, the
one with and the other without the skin. — Editor.

experiments and observations. 279

Experiment 51.

September 26 At 10 o'clock a.m., I put thirty grains

o? ripe mellow peach, and thirty grains o^ ripe hard apple
into one ounce of gastric juice, and kept them in axilla,
till 8 o'clock P.M. At this time the residuum of the
peach, weighed eighteen grains — the apple, twenty-four
grains. They were neither of them mashed or mastica-
ted, but cut into small square pieces, strung on a string,
and suspended into the juice in a vial.

At 10 o'clock A.M., of the 27th, after having been con-
tinued in axilla, six hours longer, the peach weighed ten
grains, and the apple the same as at last examination,
twenty-four grains. The peach had now become soft
and pulpous, and fallen from the string. Eight hours
longer continuance in axilla, completed the digestion of
the peach ; but the apple remained nearly the same.

Experiment 52.

September 27 At 2 o'clock p.m., I put one drachm

oi albumen of egg into four drachms of gastric juice, fresh
from the healthy stomach. At first, the albumen fell to
the bottom of the vial ; but on being agitated, it was dif-
fused through the juice, and in a few minutes, loose co-
agulae formed, and remained suspended near the bottom
of the fluid. Raised the temperature to 100°, and placed
the vial in the axilla.

At the same time, I put one drachm of albumen into
four drachms of simple water, at the same temperature,
and placed it with the other in the axilla. When first

280 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

put together, the albumen was diffused, in loose, light
flocculi, through the water, not coagulating and collecting
like that in the gastric juice, and subsiding to the bottom,
but adhered to the sides of the vial, or rose to the surface.

When both vials were smartly agitated, a white frothy
mass formed on the top of the water, filling the two-
ounce vial in which it was contained. The vial of albu-
men and gastric juice exhibited the coagulse broken into
small particles, falling towards the bottom again. Kept
in the axilla and frequently agitated, for one and a half
hours, the gastric mixture had become semi-opaque, and
the coagulae considerably diminished in quantity. The
aqueous mixture remained unchanged ; the frothy por-
tion on top, and the fluid, perfectly limpid and clear, be-
low. No appearance of the albumen in any shape, could
be seen, except the floating froth. Indeed, the albumen
seemed to have clarified the water, and rendered it clear ~
er than at first. At 6 o'clock, p.m., the albumen in the
gastric juice was completely dissolved ; the fluid was white
and milky, with a little very fine dirty white precipitate
falling to the bottom, on standing at rest. That in the
water was strikingly different in appearance. The agita-
tion had beaten up the albumen completely into beauti-
ful white froth, and it lay like a snow ball or bunch of
clean, raw cotton, on the surface of the water, now trans-
parent as crystal, without the least particle of sediment
to be seen.

At 7 o'clock, I added two drachms of gastric juice to
the vial containing the water and albumen, and continued
it in axilla. In two hours, the solvent effect of the juice

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 281

upon the frothy mass was very evident. The white froth
upon the top was almost entirely diminished and gone.
Neither could agitation reproduce it as at first; small white
coagulse, like those seen in the other vials, were now dis-
tinctly visible ; the fluid had become opaque and whitish
like the other, and a little fine sediment settled to the
bottom on standing. Continued in the axilla two hours
longer, it resembled almost exactly that in the other vial
in every particular.

Experiment 53.

At 2 o'clock P.M., I put one drachm of yo/A of egg into
four drachms of gastric juice, and another drachm into
four drachms of simple water, and kept them, as usual, in
the axilla ; no difference at first could be perceived be-
tween the gastric juice and aqueous mixtures ; each ex-
hibited a yellow mixture, like the egg, simply beat up
with any white or watery menstruum. Six hours conti-
nuance of this treatment produced little difference in the
appearance of the two, and effected a slight modification
in the gastric mixture only ; this seems to have been
converted into a very fine coagulse, of a rich cream co-
lour and consistence, and of a paler yellow than the other.
In twelve hours more, a striking difference was manifest
— that in the water remained the same as when first put
together — a dull, yellow-coloured sediment, in the pro-
portion of about one-fifth of the space occupied by the
whole, had subsided to the bottom of a thin fluid of the
same colour, and now emitted a fetid odour. That in
the gastric juice had become more cream-like and lighter

A a

282 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

coloured, separating, on standing, into three distinct por-
tions— a loose coagulated yellow mass, rose to the top,
occupying more than half the upper space — a clear
whey-coloured fluid below, with a dirty yellow sediment
at the bottom, in about the proportion of one-twelfth of
the whole ; not the least fetor was perceptible.

Experiment 54,

At 1 o'clock, 30 minutes, p.m., I mixed one drachm
of olive oil with three drachms of gastric juice, and kept
frequently agitated in axilla, for eight hours. When first
put together and shaken, the mixture resembled water
and oil precisely ; after continuing in the axilla four or
five hours, the oil had perceptibly diminished, and chyme
began to be formed, rendering the juice opaque and
milky. At 10 o'clock p.m., the oil was about one sixth
diminished, the menstruum nearly the colour and con-
sistence of milk.

Sept. 30. — 8 o'clock a.m., continued in the same man-
ner, in the axilla, for twelve hours ; the oil was propor-
tionally diminished, and the opacity and milkyness gra-
dually increased.

Oct. 1 — At 8 o'clock A. M., I added one drachm of gas-
tric juice — not clear, but considerably vitiated. Conti-
nued in axilla fourteen hours. Similar proportional de-
crease of the oil, and change of the colour of the fluid
were produced, and a slight fetor was perceptible. This
last circumstance, no doubt, was attributable to the vitia-
ted juice added.

Oct. 2. — 10 o'clock A. M., added three drachms of pure

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 283

gastric juice, and continued in axilla ten hours. This
addition corrected the fetor in a great measure. The
stratum of oil was not much diminished in bulk, but con-
siderably changed in appearance, having become quite
white and frothy, exhibiting myriads of minute globules ;
and the colour and consistence of the fluid were more
rich and milky.

On the 3d, at 10 o'clock a.m., I divided the contents
of the vial into two equal parts, and put them into two
separate vials. To No. 1, I added two drachms of pure
gastric juice ; and to No. 2, two drachms of fresh ex-
tracted gastric juice, containing a large proportion of
yellowish-green bile, and continued, as usual, in axilla.
The following changes were produced : — The portion in
No. 2 vial, which had received the yellow gastric juice,
at first partook of the yellow colour of the juice added?
generally diffused through the whole mass — a separation
then took place ; the bile seemed principally to unite
with the oil, breaking it down and reducing it to very
minute and almost imperceptible globules ; and after re-
maining in the axilla ten hours, and then standing at rest
a few minutes, the under surface of the supernatant stra-
tum of oil exhibited a milky or creamy appearance, and
small white flocculi, resembling coagulated milk or albu-
men ; these soon became dissolved, and increased the
richness of the fluid below — no sediment to be seen.
The portion in No. 1 vial, to which the clear gastric juice
was added, at the end of ten hours, had undergone some
change. The pellicle of oil on the surface, was reduced
to minute globules of a whitish colour. The same ap-

284 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

pearance of white flocculi, or coagulae, were exhibited
upon the under surface of the supernatant stratum of oil,
as in the other, but not so abundant, and the fluid was
not so rich in colour and consistence.

Oct. 4 — At 9 o'clock a. m., I added two drachms more
of each kind of juice to their respective parcels, and con-
tinued them, as usual, in axilla, for eleven hours. The
difference between the two parcels was now considerably
increased. The fluid in No. 2 vial, was of a rich cream
colour and consistence ; the supernatant stratum of oil
was converted into a light yellowish mass, resembling a
mixture of gelatine and coagulae ; few of the globules of
the oil could be distinguished ; yellow flocculi adhered to
the sides of the vial, above the fluid, after being agitated.
When suffered to stand at rest a short time, loose yellow
flocculi rose on the surface, occupying more than twice
the space of the oil, before the last addition of gastric
juice — no sediment subsided.

The parcel in No, 1 vial, had regularly progressed in
chymification, in ratio proportional to the juice added ;
the supernatant, oily stratum, was diminished in thick-
ness nearly one third, since the last addition of gastric
juice ; had changed from its oily appearance into a white
semi- gelatinous mass, intermingled with milk-white floc-
culi ; the fluid of the same milky appearance — a little
white sediment at the bottom.

Oct. 5 — At 10 o'clock A.M., I added six drachms pure
gastric juice, and six drachms of fresh extracted juice,
containing about the same proportion of yellow bile as
the other, to their respective vials, and put them on the

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 285

bath, and kept them continually agitated for five hours.
The effect was palpable and plain. The supernatant
stratum in No. 2 vial was now completely broken down,
and not a globule remained ; a thin yellow pellicle, or
loose flocculi, rose upon the surface on standing, and the
fluid was of a rich cream colour and consistence, slightly
tinged with bile — no sediment perceptible.

The contents of No. 1 vial had undergone considerable
change ; the oily pellicle on the surface was diminished
but little in volume, but changed in appearance ; had be-
come converted into a white semi -gelatinous, or rather
saponaceous consistence, and the milky richness of the
fluid was increased.

This experiment is minutely and accurately detailed,
with a view to demonstrate the slow but certain digesti-
bility of oils, and the manner they are acted upon by the
gastric juice. It may be tedious from its prolixity, but
I considered its communication might be of some import-
ance and usefulness to physiological science, the interests
of which have been of paramount consideration with me
in all these experiments.

It very clearly appears by this experiment alone, that
bile accelerates the solution of oil, by the gastric juice ;
and, I have no doubt, it facilitates the chymification of
all fatty and oily aliments ; and is required, and neces-
sarily called into the stomach only for that purpose. This
has been frequently indicated in the course of these ex-
periments, by the effect which it has produced on fatty
or oily aliments, when adventitiously mixed with the gas-
tric juice.

286 experiments and observations.

Experiment 55.

Sept. 29. — At 1 o'clock P.M., I mixed one drachm of
sweet cream, with three drachms of clear gastric juice,
and placed them in the axilla. When first put together,
the juice fell to the bottom of the vial, and remained dis-
tinctly separate from the cream till agitated, when they
united, but exhibited no other immediate change of ap-
pearance. When the temperature was raised to about
80°, the whole gradually formed into very fine creamy
coagulae. Continued in axilla twelve hours, this coagu-
lated mass was more than half diminished, and rising to
the top of an opaque white whey-coloured liquid. Small
globules of oil were now seen on the upper surface of the
supernatant coagulae — no sediment.

Oct. 1. — 10 o'clock A.M., I added one drachm of clear
gastric juice, and continued in axilla ten hours, when
the creamy coagulae were still more diminished ; the glo-
bules of oil on the surface increased, and the liquor be-
low resembled clear rich gruel, occupying about one-sixth
of the space of the whole.

Oct. 2. — 12 o'clock M., I added another drachm of gas-
tric juice, and continued it in axilla eight hours. The
creamy coagulae were now reduced to about one-fourth,
and more loose and white than at first. The globules of
oil were now much increased, and formed a complete
pellicle over the whole upper surface, nearly resembling
soft butter, and emitted a slight rancid flavour. The
richness of the chymous liquid below was proportionally
increased. No sediment.

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 28?

Oct. 3. — 1-2 o'clock M., I divided the contents of the
vial into two equal parts, and put them into two separate
vials. To No. 1, I added two drachms of pure gastric
juice ; and to No. 2, two drachms of fresh extracted gas-
tric juice, strongly tinged with yellowish-green bile, and
kept them in axilla nine hours. The changes effected
after this addition were strikingly evident, and different
in the two parcels. That in No. 2, to which was added
the yellowish-green juice, exhibited a perfectly homoge-
neous rich gruel-like liquid, slightly tinged with the bile ;
the creamy coagulae were all dissolved, and not a globule
of the oil to be seen ; all appeared chymified, — a little
dirty white sediment fell to the bottom.

The creamy coagulae of No. 1 vial were not completely
dissolved, but reduced to a thin loose layer, and the oily
pellicle was scarcely perceptible ; the globules extremely
minute and whitish, and of a saponaceous consistence.
The fluid below was of a light- coloured, rich, gruelly ap-
pearance. No sediment deposited. To complete the
chymification of the contents of No. 1, I added two
drachms more clear gastric juice, and continued it in ax-
illa twelve hours longer ; at the end of this time the coa-
gulae were reduced to a very thin layer ; the oily pellicle
entirely dissolved, and the liquid of a rich gruelly colour
and consistence. No sediment subsided on standing.

Experiment 56.

Oct. 1. — Mixed four drachms of sweet skimmed milk
with four drachms of gastric juice, and kept in axilla.
The juice fell to the bottom when first put together, as

288 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

with the cream ; but when shaken, and raised to 90° or
] 00° temperature, formed into loose and coarser coagulae
than the cream, which were diffused and suspended
through the milky fluid. Continued in axilla eight hours,
the coagulae were more collected, firmer, and more than
half diminished. The fluid of a light whey, or thin gruel
colour and consistence, with a few loose white flocculi,
and a creamy pellicle on the top.

Oct. 2. — Continued in axilla eight hours more, the
coagulae were almost completely dissolved ; fluid, the
colour of rich strained gruel ; a few light flocculi on the
surface, but no creamy pellicle ; a little coarse sediment,
or loose white coagulae at the bottom.

Experiment 57.

Oct. 3. — Put fifteen drops of gastric juice into three
drachms of sweet milk, at the temperature of 65° ; a
slight appearance of very fine coagulae was first exhibited,
but not so as to become distinctly separated till after the
temperature was raised to 85° or 90°, when the whole
mass gradually formed into a tremulous jelly-like curd,
which, after cooling, and standing at rest a few hours,
separated into two about equal parts ; a soft caseous sub-
stance, and a thin light-coloured whey.

Experiment 58.

Oct. 3 — Put two drachms of the soft caseous substance,

formed in the above experiment (55), into one oimce of

gastric juice, and placed in axilla six hours ; at the end

of this time, the curd or caseous substance was nearly

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 289

all dissolved ; the menstruum of a white gruel-like ap-
pearance, with a thin pellicle of loose white coagulae
on the surface. In four hours more it was all dissolved ;
the fluid richer, and perceptibly acid.

Experiment 59-

Oct. 13. — 9 o'clock A.M. Into one ounce of gastric
juice, I put one and a half drachms of the medulla spi-
nalis o^ Q.n' o^, enveloped in its neurileraa, boiled, and
placed it on the sand bath, or in axilla, six hours. At 3
o'ctockp.M., examined, — the medulla had fallen out of
its envelope, and when taken out and separated from the
fluid, by the filter, weighed fifteen grains ; the neurilema,
at the same time, weighed eighteen grains. Put these
remaining portions into two drachms fresh gastric juice,
and continued in axilla six hours. At 9 o'clock p.m.,
the remainder of the medullary portion weighed eight
grains, and the neurilema, nine grains. Continued in
axilla three hours longer, the medullary part weighed
three grains, and the neurilema, four grains. The men-
struum was now a rich milk-white liquid, of nearly the
consistence of cream. A loose light sediment fell to the
bottom on standing ; the fluid retained its rich milky
whiteness and creamy consistence.

Experiment 60.

Oct, 14. — 9 o'clock A.M., put half a drachm o? medul-
lary substance, the brain of an ox boiled, into four
drachms of gastric juice, and kept it on the bath, fre-
quently agitated, six hours, when it was all dissolved, and

290 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

had produced a rich milky fluid, with a loose light sedi-
ment.

Experiment 61.

Oct. 15. — Put twelve grains of solid beef hone, broken
into small pieces, with the periosteum attached to one
side, into one ounce of fresh gastric juice, and kept in
axilla twelve hours. At this time the periosteum was
nearly dissolved ; weight of the bone, ten grains. Added
six drachms of gastric juice, considerably vitiated, and
continued in axilla nine hours, and the bone weighed
nine grains. The menstruum was now a whitish opaque
fluid, about the consistence of clear thin gruel, with a
little light-brown sediment, settling to the bottom on
standing. Added one ounce more gastric juice, and con-
tinued it in axilla twelve hours. The weight of the bone
at the end of this time, was six grains. The opacity and
richness of the fluid increased ; smell slightly fetid.
Discontinued the experiment.

The result of this, confirms the correctness of some
former observations in similar experiments, and suffi-
ciently demonstrates the solubility of solid bone in the
gastric juice of the human stomach.

Experiment 62.

Oct. 17. — 1 o'clock P.M., I put twenty grains of boiled
mutton suet, cold, and divided into small pieces, into six
drachms of gastric juice, tinged with bile, and kept it in
axilla seven hours. The undissolved residuum, separa-
ted by the filter, now weighed ten grains ; and the fluid

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 291

was as white as milk, and about the consistence of thick
gruel ; there was no appearance of any oily particles ; it
seemed to have been coagulated, and converted into
chyme, like milk or albumen ; the chymous part very
much resembled that formed from medullary substance.
Continued in axilla three hours longer, it was all dissolved,
and the richness of the fluid considerably increased.

Experiment 63.

Oct, 25. — 2 o'clock p.m., put one diVdichTa custard mio
one ounce of gastric juice, fresh from the stomach, and
placed it in axilla. 8 o'clock 30 minutes, all dissolved
and chymified ; fluid, as usual from such aliment, of colour
and consistence of rich gruel.

Experiment 64.

Nov. 1. 1833. — To one ounce of gastric juice, taken
from the stomach in Dec. 1 832 (and which was as pure
as when first extracted), I added thirty grains of lean
boiled mutton^ masticated. ^Kept in axilla six hours, it
dissolved sixteen grains. The fluid exhibited the usual
appearance of chyme.

292

TABLE

Shewing the Mean Time of Digestion of the different Articles
of Diet, naturally, in the Stomach, and artificially, in
Vials, on a Bath.

The proportion of gastric juice to aliment, in artificial digestion,
was generally calculated at one ounce of the farmer to one
drachm of the latter, the bath being kept as near as practica-
ble at the natural temperature, 100° Fahrenheit, with frequent
agitation.

Articles of Diet.

Mean Time cf Chymification.

In Stomach

In Vials,

Rice, ....

Preparation.

H. M.

Preparation.

H. m.

Boiled

Pig's feet, soused,

Boiled

Tripe, soused.

Boiled

Eggs, whipped, . .
Trout, salmon, fresh.

Raw

Boiled

1 30
1 30

Whipped
Boiled

4
3 30

Trout, salmon, fresh.

Fried

1 30

Soup, barley.

Boiled

1 30

Apples, sweet, mellow,

Raw

1 30

Masticated

6 45

Venison steak, .

Broiled

1 35

Brains, animal, .

Boiled

1 45

Boiled

4 30

feago, ....

Boiled

I 45

Boiled

3 15

Tapioca,

Boiled -

2 >

Boiled

3 20

Barley,

Boiled

Milk, ....

Boiled

2 .

Boiled

4 15

Liver, beef's, fresh, .

Broiled

Cut fine

6 30

Eggs, fresh,

Raw

4 15

Codfish, cured dry.

Boiled

Apples, sour, mellow.

Raw

Masticated

8 30

Cabbage, with vinegar,

Raw

Shaved

10 15

Milk, . . . .

Raw

2 15

Raw

4 45

Eggs, fresh,

Roasted

2 15

Turkey, wild, .

Roasted

2 18

Turkey, domestic.

Boiled

2 25

Gelatine, .

Boiled

2 30

Boiled

4 45

Turkey, domestic,

Roasted

2 30

Goose, wild.

Roasted

2 30

Pig, sucking.

Roasted

2 30

Lamb, fresh.

Broiled

2 30

Hash, meat and vege-\
tables,

Warmed

2 30

Beans, pod,

Boiled

2 30

Cake, sponge,

Baked

2 30

Broken

6 15

Parsneps, ...

Boiled

2 30

Mashed

6 45

Potatoes, Irish,

Roasted

2 30

Potatoes, Irish,

Baked

2 30

TABLE — continued.

293

Articles of Diet.

Mean Time of Chymification.

In Stomach.

In Vials.

Cabbage, head, .
Spinal marrow, animal,
Chicken, full grown.
Custard,

Beef, with salt only.
Apples, sour, hard, .
Oysters, fresh, .
Eggs, fresh,
Bass, striped, fresh, .
Beef, fresh, lean, rare,
Beef-steak,
Pork, recently salted,
Pork, recently salted.
Mutton, fresh, .
Mutton, fresh, .
Soup, bean.
Chicken soup,
Aponeurosis,
Dumpling, apple.
Cake, corn.
Oysters, fresh.
Pork, recently salted.
Pork-steak,
Mutton, fresh, .
Bread, corn.
Carrot, orange, .
Sausage, fresh, .
Flounder, fresh,
Catfish, fresh.
Oysters, fresh, .
Beef, fresh, lean, dry.
Beef, with mustard, &c
Butter,

Cheese, old strong,
Soup, mutton, .
Oyster soup.
Bread, wheat, fresh
Turnips, flat.
Potatoes, Irish,
Eggs, fresh.
Eggs, fresh,
Gre^n com and beans
Beets,

Salmon salted, .
Beef,

Veal, fresh.
Fowls, domestic.
Fowls, domestic.
Ducks, domestic.
Soup, beef, vegetables)
and bread, . j

Preparation.

Raw

Boiled

Fricasseed

Baked

Boiled

Kaw

Raw

Soft boiled

Broiled

Roasted

Broiled

Raw

Stewed

Broiled

Boiled

Baked

Roasted

Broiled

Roasted

Baked

Boiled

Broiled

Fried

Stewed

Roasted

Boiled

Melted

Raw

Boiled

Baked

Boiled

Hard boiled

Fried

Boiled

Fried

Broiled

BoUed

Roasted

Boiled

Preparation.

30
40
45
45
45
50
55

15
15
15
15
15
15
20
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
45
45

Masticated
Boiled

Baked

Entire pieces
Raw, entire
Soft boiled

Roasted

Masticated

Raw

Masticated

Boiled

Mashed

Stewed
Roasted

Masticated

Mashed
Hard boiled

Boiled
Masticated

12 30

5 25

6 30
9 30

7 30
6 30

8 15
8 30

6 45

6 30

6 15

8 25

7 45

7 15

4 30

8 30

7 45
12 30

6 30

294

TABLE — continued.

Articles of Diet,

Heart, animal, .

Beef, old, hard, salted

Pork, recently salted.

Soup, marrow bones,

Cartilage, .

Pork, recently salted.

Veal, fresh.

Ducks, wild.

Suet, mutton.

Pork, fat and lean.

Tendon,

Suet, beef, fresh,

Beef-steak,

Beef,

Mutton, fresh, .

Cream,

Cheese, old, strong.

Cheese, new, mild.

Oil, olive, .

Tendon,

Cartilage, .

Bone, beef's, solid,

Bone, hog's, solid,

Parsneps, .

Carrot, orange, .

Potatoes, Irish,

Cabbage,

Peach, mellow.

Peach, mellow,

Mean Time of Chymification.

In Stomach.

Preparation.

Fried

Boiled

Fried

Boiled

Fried

Roasted

Boiled

Roasted

Boiled

Broiled

Raw

Boiled

Broiled

Boiled
Raw

Raw

Boiled

15
15
15
15
30
30
30
30
15
30
30

4 30

In Vials.

Preparation.

Entire piece

Masticated
Masticated

Divided

Masticated
Entire piece
Cut fine
Cut fine
Entire piece
Unmasticated
Raw

Entire piece
Divided
Raw

Entire piece
Divided
Entire piece
Entire piece
Entire piece
Entire piece
Entire piece
Raw piece
Entire piece
Boiled
Cut small
Mashed .

13 30

12 45
12

8 15

8 30
25 30
18

8 30
60
24
12
80
80

13 15
18

12 30
17 15
14
20
10
6

The foregoing table is formed from all the experi-
ments made upon St Martin, since 1825, taking the ave-
rage from such as were generally performed under the
naturally healthy condition of the stomach and ordinary
exercise.

The mean times of artificial chymification have been
taken from such experiments as were generally made
with the pure gastric juice, or such as was too slightly

TABLE.

295

vitiated to impair its solvent effect in any essential de-
gree.

They exhibit the average, as near as practicable, for
the digestion of one drachm of alimentary matter, in one
ounce of gastric juice, or in about that proportion, count-
ing the time actually kept on the bath or in the axilla.

Exceptions, however, must be made for the bone, oil,
cream, and one or two other articles, which chymify
much slower and more difficultly than the less concen-
trated aliments.

Several experiments have been omitted, especially when
they were of the same kinds, and produced similar results.

TABLE

Shewing the Temperature of the Interior of the Stomach in diffe-
rent Conditions, taken in different Seasons of the Year^ and at
various times of the Day, from 5 o'clock in the Morning till
12 o'clock at Night.

Temperature and

Date.

Wind.

Weather.

Condition of Stomach.

Empty.

During Chy-
mification.

--^«»_>>S— i»-~N

'— «»_^i^— li^— -.

Re-
pose.

Exer-
cise.

Re-
pose.

Exer-
cise.

1829.

Dec. 6.

Cloudy and damp.

N.W.

Do. do.

s.w.

Clear and dry.

Clear.

1=0

laso.

Jan. 21.

N.W.

Do. and cold.

0.8

100

25.

S.W.

Do.

loo

100

March 17.

s.w.

Rainy.

18.

N.W.

Clear.

100

102*

19.

1832,

Dec. 4.

N.W.

Snowing.

101

* Dr Beaumont speaks of the increased temperature of the stomach after exer-
cise as if it were peculiar to the stomach. Most probably, however, it is merely
common to it with all other parts, for exercise developes heat all over the body.
— Editor.

296

TABLE — continued.

Temperature and

Date.

Wind.

Weather.

E
o

Condition of Stomach.

Em
Re^

pty.
Exer-

During Chy-
mificution.

ReH

Exer-

pose.

cise.

pose.

cise.

1832.

Dec. 5.

100

lOlJ

100

Stomach morbid.

Cloudy and damp

Stomach morbid.

13.

100

14.

100

Stomach morbid.

15.

100

Stomach morbid.

22.

100

23.

100

101

Stomach morbid.

25.

Variable.

100

101

Stomach morbid.

2Q.

N.E.

Cloudy and damp.

99i

101

90i

101

27.

Foul and damp.

99J

100

, ,

Clear.

100

2K.

Do.

100

29.

N.W.

Do.

100

30.

Do.

100

31.
1833.
Jan. 1.

Cloudy and damp.

lOOJ

Stomach morbid.

Rainy.

100

Clear.

lOU

N.E.

Cloudy and damp.

100

11.

s,w.

Clear.

100

13.

Calm.

Cloudy and dry.

100

101

100

lOOi

Stomach morbid.

14.

N.W.

Clear.

100

101}

15.

N.E.

Cloudy and dry.

100

101

17.

N.W.

Clear and dry.

100

102

Stomach morbid.

23.

N.E.

Rainy.

lOOi

lOli

24.

N.
N.E.

Cloudy and damp.
Rainy.

lOOj
99i

lOli

After sleeping.

25,

36
38

99
lOOJ

102

Before rising.

26.

N,W.

Clear.

lOOJ

loot

101

99i after sleeping.

27.
23.

Calm.
S.W.

Cloudy.
Clear.

32
35

99J
101*

lOlJ
lOli

99J before rising.

s.w.

Do.

lOli
lOli

lOlJ
101|

29.

N.E.

Clear.

lOOi

lOlJ

102

100 before rising.

30.

N.E.

Cloudy and damp.

99i

lOli

iOlir

102

99J before rising.

31.

N,E,

Rainy.

lOli

iOli

lOli

10<» before rising.

Feb. 1.

N.W.

Clear.

101

102

100 before rising.

Maich 26,

Do.

lOOJ

101

July 9.

Cloudy and damp.

100

Before rising.

10.

Clear.

100

101

11.

N.E.

Cloudy.

100

101

12,

Clear.

lOOi

1011

13.

Calm.

Do.

lOOj

1011

14.

Variable.

100

102

15.

Clear.

100

102

, ,

Do.

lOOJ

lOlf

16,

Cloudy.

101

lOlJ

28.

N.W.

Clear.

101

Oct. 10.

Fair.

100

lOlJ

Rainy.

1013

102

103

ii.

N.W.

Fair.

100

102

• •

1011

12,

Cloudy.

101

13.

N.E,

Rainy.

101

102

♦ At this and the subsequent examinations the bulb of the themnrmetcr wpp
placed three or four inches nearer the pylorus than before, and exhibuea an m-
crease of temperature indicating a difference of three-fourths of a aegree betwev-n
the splenic and pyloric extremities.

( 297 )
Abstract of Temperature of Stomach.

Mean-

When empty and in repose, . . highest lOOf, \ moio
lowest 98 J ^'^^

exercising, . . highest 102, \ ,q-. i
lowest 100, J 2

Full, or during chymification in repose, highest 102, \ ^qqi

lowest 99, J 5

, highest 103, ) i^^i

lowest 100^,/ ^"^^

exercise,

IrxTrri-\C5^ \ fit.

In all the observations previously to the 4th of De-
cember 1832, the examinations were made with a mer-
curial thermometer (Fahrenheit's), and north latitude
43°. Subsequently, and to March 1833, the examina-
tions were made at Washington, D. C, in latitude 38°
53^ with the spirit thermometer, from Pool's barometer,
which varied half a degree from the mercurial one. From
July 9. to November 1 833, I used Pool's glass chemical
spirit thermometer (Fahrenheit's scale), at Plattsburgh,
N. Y., in latitude about 44^ 40', N *

* In the table shewing the relative digestibility of different ali-
ments, and also in the list of " Inferences" which follows, I have
arranged the different subjects in their natural order of succes-
sion, instead of copying the tables as they stand in the original,
unconnected by any principle. The much greater length of time
required for the solution of aliment out of the stomach seems to
shew that, contrary to Dr Beaumont's opinion, digestion is some-
thing more than a purely chemical solution — Editor.

( 298 )

INFERENCES FROM THE FOREGOING EXPERI-
MENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

1. That hunger is the effect of distention of the vessels
that secrete the gastric juice.

2. That the processes of mastication, insalivation,
and deglutition, in an abstract point of view, do not, in
any way, affect the digestion of food ; or, in other words,
when food is introduced directly into the stomach, in a
finely divided state, without these previous steps, it is
as readily and as perfectly digested as when they have
been taken.

3. That saliva does not possess the properties of an
alimentary solvent.

4. That the^r^^ stage of digestion is effected in the
stomach.

5. That the inn^r coat of the stomach, is of a pale ^m^
colour, varying in its hues, according to its full or empty
state.

6. That in health, it is constantly sheathed with a
mucous coat.

7. That the natural temperature of the stomach is 100°
Fahrenheit.

INFERENCES FROM EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 299

S. That the temperature is not elevated by the inges-
tion of food.

9. That exercise elevates the temperature ; and that
sle^ or rest) in a recumbent position, depresses it.

10. That stimulating co7idiments are injurious to the
healthy stomach.

11. That the use of ardent spirits always produces
disease of the stomach, if persevered in.

12. That the appearance of the interior of the stomach,
in disease, is essentially different from that of its healthy
state.

13. That the agent of chymification is the gastric
juice.

14. That the pure gastric juice is fluid, clear, and
transparent, without odour, a little salt, and perceptibly
add.

1 5. That it contains free muriatic acid and some other
active cAcwzca/ principles.

16. That it is never found free in the gastric cavity ;
but is always excited to discharge itself by the introduc-
tion oifood, or other irritants.

17. That it is secreted from vessels distinct from the
mucous follicles.

18. That it is seldom obtained pure, but is generally
mixed with mucus, and sometimes with saliva. When
pure, it is capable of being kept for months, and perhaps
for years.*

• I have now (Nov. 1. 1833) in my possession, some clear gastric
juice, possessing all its original properties, unchanged and undi-
minished, which was taken from the stomach in Dec. 1832, about
eleven months ago, and has been kept tightly corked in vials.

300 INFERENCES FROM THE FOREGOING

1 9. That it coagulates albumen, and afterguards dis-
solves the coagulce.

20. That it checks the progress of putrefaction.

21. That it acts as a solvent of food, and alters its pro-
perties.

22. That like other chemical agents, it commences its
action on food, as soon as it comes in contact with it.

23. That it is capable of combining with a certain and
fixed quantity of food, and when more aliment is present-
ed for its action than it will dissolve, disturbance of the
stomach, or " indigestion," will ensue.

24. That its action is facilitated by the warmth and
motions of the stomach.

25. That it is invariably the same substance^ modified
only by admixture with other fluids.

26. That it becomes intimately mixed and blended
with the ingestae in the stomach, by the motions of that
organ.

27. That no other fluid produces the same effect on
food that gastric juice does ; and that it is the only solvent
of aliment,

28. That gentle exercise facilitates the digestion of
food.

29. That bile is not ordinarily found in the stomachy
and is /io^ commonly necessary for the digestion of food ;
but

30. That, when oily food has been used, bile assists its
digestion.

3 1 . That the action of the stomach and its fluids are
the same on all hinds of di.et.

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 301

32. That the time required for the digestion of food is
various, depending upon the quantity and quaUty of the
food, state of the stomach, &c ; but that the time ordi-
narily required for the disposal of a moderate meal of the
fibrous parts of meat, with bread, &c,, is from three to
three and a half hours.

33. That the digestibility of aliment does not depend
upon the quantity of nutrient principles that it contains.

34. That the susceptibility of digestion does not, how-
ever, depend altogether upon natural or chemical dis-
tinctions.

35. That bulk, as well as nutriment, is necessary to
the articles of diet.

36. That digestion is facilitated by minuteness oidivi^
sion and tenderness of fibre, and retarded by opposite
qualities.

37. That solid food, of a certain texture, is easier of
digestion than f^uid.

38. That ajiimal and farinaceous aliments are more
easy of digestion than vegetable.

39> That oily food is difficult of digestion, though it
contains a large proportion of the nutrient principles.

40. That the quantity of food generally taken, is more
than the wants of the system require ; and that such
excess, if persevered in, generally produces, not only
functional aberration, but disease of the coats of the sto-
mach .

41. That the ultimate principles of aliment are always
the same, from whatever food they may be obtained.

42. That chyme is homogeneous, but variable in its
colour and consistence.

302 INFERENCES FROM EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.

43. That towards the latter stages of chymification, it
becomes more acid and stimulating^ and passes more
rapidly from the stomach.

44. That water, ardent spirits, and most other Jluids,
are not affected by the gastric juice, but pass from the
stomach soon after they have been received.

45. That the motions of the stomach produce a con-
stant churning of its contents, and admixture of food
and gastric juice.

46. That these motions are in two directions, trans-
versely and longitudinally,

47. That the expulsion of the chyme is assisted by a
transverse hand, Sfc.

48. That chyle is formed in the duodenum and small
intestines, by the action of bile and pancreatic Juice on
the chyme.

49. That crude chyle is a semi-transparent whey-co-
loured fluid.

50. That it is further changed by the action of the
lacteals and mesenteric glands. This is only an inference
from the other facts. It has been the subject of experi-
ment.

I regret exceedingly that I have not been able to ob-
tain returns from Professor Berzelius, to whom I trans-
mitted, about seven months ago, a bottle of gastric juice
for chemical examination. I could not, however, con-
sistently with the expectations and wishes of my friends,
further delay the publication of these Experiments.

( 303 )

CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR.

Before taking leave of our author, it may be not
without interest to advert briefly to some of the practi-
cal consequences deducible from his experiments.

One of the best ways to facilitate the comprehension
of, and impart an interest to, a subject with which we are
not familiar, is to trace the analogy and harmony sub-
sisting between it and one with which we are already
well acquainted. Every point of resemblance thus dis-
covered, assimilates our newly acquired information to
our previously asserted knowledge, and stamps upon it
a character of ready utility, which cannot otherwise be
acquired without much additional labour and study. In-
fluenced by considerations of this kind, I think it will
be useful to notice the analogy which subsists between
the process of digestion and that of purely chemical solu-
tion,— an analogy so complete as to induce Dr Beau-
mont and many other physiologists to consider them as
identical.

Dr Beaumont maintains, and from his experiments in-
deed it appears, that digestion consists essentially in a
solution of the alimentary mass in gastric juice ; and
whether we admit or not that that solution is modified
by the living organization within which it takes place, as

304 CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR.

I believe it to be, still it can scarcely be denied that, to
a great extent, it is governed by the ordinary laws of
chemical action. This will appear from the following
considerations :

\st, Chemical solution is greatly facilitated by the
minute division of the solid body, because the points of
contact between its particles and those of the solvent are
thereby greatly multiplied, and consequently their mu-
tual action promoted. For this reason, an ounce of
sugar or of salt will be found to dissolve much more
rapidly when thrown into water in a pounded than in a
solid state. In the digestion of aliment, precisely the
same law applies, and for the very same reason, and hence
it is that Nature has established careful mastication as
the first step of preparation for digestive solution. By
the minute division of the alimentary mass which masti-
cation effects, the easy access of the gastric juice to
every portion of its substance is effectually insured, and
the importance of this division is shewn by the enormous
length of time required in Dr Beaumont's experiments
for the chymifi cation of unmasticated food, compared
with the rapidity with which finely divided portions of
the same substances were acted upon.

2dly, Chemical solution proceeds most rapidly when
small portions of the comminuted solid are successively
added and stirred through the fluid, and most slowly when
a large quantity is thrown rapidly in and not duly mixed
with the fluid. In digestion, the precise counterpart of
this also occurs. When we masticate properly, and eat
slowly small quantities of food at a time, each morsel

CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR. 305

causes the secretion of, and becomes duly impregnated
with, a sufficient proportion of gastric juice to insure its
solution, and digestion goes on rapidly. But when suc-
cessive portions of aliment are hastily swallowed, there
is not time for the secretion of the requisite quantity
of juice to take place, and for each morsel to become
thoroughly imbibed with it, and consequently digestion
goes on slowly and imperfectly. This latter result is
the more inevitable, because, as Dr Beaumont shews,
the gastric juice does not accumulate in the stomach
for use, but begins to be secreted only when the food
comes into contact with its mucous coat. Dr Beau-
mont, indeed, observed in further accordance with this
arrangement, that the stomach does not yield readily
or willingly to the rapid introduction of successive mor-
sels, but contracts upon each in its turn, for the express
purpose of diffusing it through the cavity and bringing
it into contact with as large a surface as possible, and
thereby impregnating it thoroughly with gastric juice.
And consequently, when we gulp down food, this ad-
justment is prevented, the stomach is forcibly distended,
and the evil in all probability aggravated by eating more
than enough, — an error we are never so apt to commit
as when making a hurried meal.

3d, Another principle in chemical solution is, that a
given quantity of fluid can dissolve only a fixed relative
quantity of the solid body. A pint of water, for exam-
ple, can dissolve only a certain quantity of salt, and if
more of the latter be added, it will remain at the bottom

unchanged. Dr Beaumont's experiments demonstrate

c c

306 CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR.

that the same rule holds with digestive solution, and that
when too large a quantity of food is eaten in proportion
to the quantity of gastric juice which the stomach can
furnish, the excess will, like the salt, remain undissolved.
This is a very important principle in a practical point of
view, and if Dr Beaumont had done nothing more than
demonstrate its reality, he would not have laboured in
vain. Abstractly considered, it seems an extremely pro-
bable proposition, and yet till it was brought before us
in this tangible shape, the fact was almost overlooked.
When, as in several of the experiments out of the sto-
mach, the quantity of food operated upon was small and
the gastric juice was in excess, the solution went on ra-
pidly till completed. When the conditions were reversed,
and the quantity of aliment exceeded the due proportion
to the gastric juice, the process of chymification ceased
long before it was all dissolved, but was immediately re-
sumed on more juice being added,— thus shewing in the
clearest manner that the previous cessation was owing
exclusively to the disproportion of solid aliaient to the
solvent fluid.

Precisely the same thing holds good with digestion
in the stomach. Many of Dr Beaumont's experiments
shew, that when the quantity of food was small, and the
gastric juice abundant, digestion went on so rapidly that
the stomach was empty within an hour. Whereas when
a very full meal was eaten, and the gastric juice was in
small proportion, digestion proceeded only a certain
length. The remainder of the food (for which the sto-^
mach was unable to supply juice) then began to under-

CONCLtJDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR. 307

go the process of fermentation, just as it does out of
the stomach under similar circumstances of heat and
moisture ; and hence the acidity, flatulence, and oppres-
sion by which indigestion is characterized. In most in-
stances of this kind, the stomach recovers itself after a
longer or shorter time, and then pours out a new supply of
juice to complete the process, upon which the oppression
and acid eructations also disappear. But where indul-
gence in excess is habitual, the stomach soon becomes
too weak to remedy the evil effectually, and permanent
indigestion establishes itself as the almost inevitable con-
sequence.

Ath, Another point in which chemical and digestive
solutions agree, is, that both are, to a certain extent, fa-
voured b^ elevation of temperature. In the stomach,
digestion goes on best at a temperature of about 99° or
1 00°, and out of the stomach the same rule holds. When
the temperature is lowered to that of the atmosphere,
digestion almost ceases, but it is renewed on the addi-
tion of caloric. But in the living body, the only way in
which the temperature can be unduly lowered, is by
swallowing quantities of cold solids or fluids, and thus re-
tarding digestion. We have seen that in one of Dr Beau-
mont's experiments, the injection of a single gill of water
at 50° sufficed to depress the heat of the stomach up-
wards of thirty degrees, and that the natural tempera-
ture was not restored for more than half an hour. This
curious fact furnishes a clue to the mischief arising from
eating ices in large quantity and rapidly, or even drink-
ing largely of cold water or beer, after a good dinner.

308 CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR.

xith^ Another circumstance in which chemical and di-
gestive solutions agree, is, in both being promoted by
gentle agitation. When we stir salt through water, it
dissolves more rapidly than when left at rest, because the
agitation removes the saturated portion of water from its
contact with the salt, and thus affords direct access to an
unsaturated portion. In digestion, in the same way, the
continued contraction of the muscular fibres of the sto-
mach keeps the alimentary mass in constant motion, and
removes the dissolved or saturated particles from its sur-
face, to make way for the action of the gastric juice upon
a fresh and unsaturated portion. As digestion advances,
and chyme is more rapidly formed, the motions also in-
crease in rapidity till the solution of the whole meal is com-
pleted. The extent and force of these muscular contrac-
tions were strikingly shewn in several of the experiments,
and their utility is perfectly obvious.

6^A, It is observed in chemical action, that the same
solvent acts very differently upon different solids. Upon
some it acts with great ease and rapidity, while upon
others its action is very slow and limited. The same
rule is observed in digestive solution. The gastric juice
acts more powerfully and rapidly upon some aliments
than upon others, while there are substances upon which
it has no effect whatever. The more dense the struc-
ture of the aliment, the larger the quantity of gastric
juice, and the longer the time required for its solution.
In one experiment, for example, a piece of bone was
dissolved by gastric juice placed in a vial, but the quan-
tity of juice, and the length of time consumed, were at

CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR. 309

least ten times greater than in the solution of a portion
of meat. For tendon, in like manner, a large quantity
of juice was requisite. As a general rule, animal food is
more easily digested than vegetables, and lean than fat
meat ; but,- as Dr Beaumont's attention was not directed
specially to ascertaining the relative digestibility of dif-
ferent articles of nutriment, much obscurity still prevails
on this branch of the subject. It is quite certain, how-
ever, that some substances require much more gastric
juice for their solution than others, and hence, where the
stomach is weak, and the secretion is consequently not
copious, those kinds of food will be most easily digested
which require least; and hence, also, the propriety of
greater attention to diet in the preservation of health,
and in the treatment of disease, than it generally meets
with.

The quantity of gastric juice which the stomach can
secrete being limited, the reason will be evident why
fruits and malt liquors, taken after a hearty dinner, often
give rise to so much distention and uneasiness, from run-
ning into ordinary fermentation, and, consequently, why
they should be scrupulously avoided by bilious and dys-
peptic invalids, and those whose digestive powers and
mode of life do not require them. On such occasions, a
little spirits and water will sometimes give immediate
relief, where malt liquor is felt as oppressive, because the
addition of spirit tends to prevent fermentation, and also
stimulates the stomach to renewed action. But, as re-
marked in my former work, the proper remedy, in cases
of this kind, is to eat temperately, and avoid the cause

310 CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR.

which renders stimulus necessary, and not to engraft a
pernicious habit on the simple fact of a temporary ad-
vantage. The ultimate efPect of every stimulus is to
exhaust vital power, and to require an increase of quan-
tity to produce the wished-for result, and hence our aim
ought to be, as far as possible, to preserve and restore
the natural action of the stomach by moderation in diet,
and regularity in our mode of life. Having, however,
treated of this subject in another place, I need not en-
large upon it here.

As, then, digestion consists essentially in a solution of
the aliment in gastric juice, it follows, that whatever pro-
motes the free and healthy secretion of that juice will
favour digestion, and, vice versa, whatever impedes or
impairs it, will impede or impair the digestive process.
It thus becomes important to ascertain the conditions
under which it is secreted most freely and healthily.

The circumstances under which Dr Beaumont ob-
tained gastric juice of healthy quality, and in largest
quantity, from St Martin's stomach, and which, conse-
quently, may be considered as most favourable to diges-
tion, were moderate and regular living, due exercise in
the open air, cheerful activity of mind and feeling, and
dry bracing weather. After excesses, on the contrary,
in eating or drinking, bodily fatigue, passionate excite-
ment, or the temporary irritation of disease, and in damp
weather, the secretion was generally impaired, both in
quantity and quality.

If, as there is every reason to believe, the gastric se-
cretion is naturally proportioned to the real wants of the

CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR. 311

system at the time, it is very easy to understand why it
is most copious after moderate and regular living, and
least so after intemperance. When a moderate meal
is eaten, a sufficiency of juice is speedily secreted for its
solution, digestion goes on rapidly, the coats of the sto-
mach retain their usual healthy appearance, and, after an
interval of repose, a fresh supply of juice is ready to be
poured out when wanted for the digestion of the succeed-
ing meal. Of these facts Dr Beaumont had ample ocu-
lar evidence. But when food is eaten to excess, the por-
tion left undissolved by the gastric juice begins to fer-
ment, and, by its physical and chemical properties, acts
as a local irritant, just as any other foreign body would
do, and produces an inflammatory action on the inner
coat of the stomach, which necessarily interferes with
the gastric secretion, and thereby impairs the power of
digestion.

From the relation which Dr Beaumont believes to
subsist between the quantity of gastric juice which the
stomach can secrete and the actual wants of the system
at the time, it follows that the power of digestion varies
considerably under different circumstances, even in the
same individual. In youth, for example, and during con-
valescence from illness, and after much exercise, when
copious materials are required for both nutrition and
growth, the gastric secretion seems to be very abundant,
and hence the vigorous appetite and easy digestion of
early life. But after maturity, when the living fabric is
complete in all its parts, and when the restless activity

312 CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR.

of youth is exchanged for the staid and comparatively
sedentary pursuits of middle age, and when, therefore,
no such abundance of nutritive materials is required, the
secretion of gastric juice is, in all probability, much di-
minished in quantity, and is the chief cause of the propor-
tionally diminished power of digestion.

Keeping the above relation in view, we ought clearly,
on the approach of maturity, to place ourselves in ac-
cordance with our altered circumstances, and diminish
our quantity of food more or less, according to the more
or less sedentary mode of life in which we are engaged,
so that there may be the due proportion between supply
and expenditure, which alone is compatible with the con-
tinuance of health. This precaution, however, is very
generally neglected. Retaining a lively sense of the
pleasures of a youthfully omnivorous digestion, the grown
man changes his habits, but continues his meals, and when
he feels the accumulating weight of excess pressing more
and more heavily upon him, instead of taking the hint,
and restricting himself to what he requires, he begins to
bemoan his weakness of stomach, and to wonder why he,
who once never felt that he had a stomach, should now
become a martyr to its complaints. From pretty exten-
sive observation, I am confident that a large proportion
of the severe dyspeptic cases which occur, in what are
considered regular living men, on the approach of man-
hood, or between twenty and forty years of age, are fairly
attributable to this cause, and might be avoided by the
exercise of a rational foresight ; and I have known seve-

CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR. 313

ral who suffered severely in this way for years, emphati-
cally lament the ignorance which betrayed them into the
error. There are many persons, no doubt, constitution-
ally too devoted to intemperance to be corrected by any
such considerations ; but there are also many misled, less
by the force of appetite, than by ignorance, who may
profit by the remark.

After the above observations were written, I was struck
with a remarkable confirmation of them in the excellent
work recently published by Mr Parker of Birmingham,
*' on the stomach and its morbid states." After describing
the mode in which repeated attacks of gastric irritation
ultimately induce disorganization of the stomach, Mr
Parker says, " I have had the charge of several patients
in the latter stages of gastric diseases, who have been
able distinctly to trace the commencement of their com-
plaints. These have seldom, commenced before the age of
twenty-jive^ at the periods when they had began the ha-
bitual use of a fuller and more stimulating diet than that
of the earlier periods of life. The symptoms with which
they were first affected were those of simple indigestion,
in its various forms of pain or distention after food, nau-
sea, or vomiting. These have ceased at intervals, have
been relieved by various plans of treatment, but have
shewn a disposition to recur at longer or shorter inter-
vals from dietetic errors or excesses, or from other causes,
in more aggravated and obstinate forms than those in
which they first made their appearance, and accompanied
by sympathetic irritations in the head, heart, liver, or

lungs, exhibited in the forms of giddiness, palpitations,

D d

B14: CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR.

jaundice, or cough." " Many of the patients in whom
dyspeptic symptoms have commenced about the ages oi
twenty or thirty, have fallen victims to gastric diseases
and their complications at the ages of from forty-five to
fifty-five." — P. 47. Mr Parker supports his position by
numerous cases, the histories of which are detailed by
the patients themselves, and, with the slight difference
that he speaks of the patients' beginning the use of the
full and stimulating diet at twenty-five, when, according
to my obsefvation, their error consisted rather in con-
tinuing the full diet of earlier life, we entirely agree in
opinion. The effect is, however, much aggravated when
to mere excess in quantity a stimulating quality is added,
such as arises from the indulgence in wine or ardent spi-
rits, common enough in young men at the age to which
Mr Parker refers. 1 was lately consulted about a very
distressing case of cancer in the stomach in a gentleman
of forty-two, brought on apparently by long- continued
excesses in both eating and drinking. The first indica-
tions of serious gastric irritation shewed themselves up-
wards of fifteen years before, without leading to almost
any change in the mode of life even when under treat-
ment.

It is now two years since I called attention to the
source of this dietetic error, viz. continuing in maturity,
and during a sedentary mode of life, the full and nutri-
tious diet which was required in youth, during rapid
gi'owth and incessant activity.* Farther observation has
since confirmed my belief in the extent of mischief aris-
* Physiology of Digestion^ &c. 1st Ed. p. 230. et seq.

CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR. 315

ing from this cause, particularly in young men exposed
to the temptations of drinking, and naturally prone to the
use of stimulants.

The other conditions which Dr Beaumont observed to
be most influential in diminishing the secretion of the
gastric juice were, bodily fatigue, strong mental emo-
tions, such as anger, and febrile excitement. Hence the
obvious necessity of avoiding full meals under such cir-
cumstances, and never eating a second meal till the sto-
mach has had time to recover from the labour of digest-
ing the one preceding ; for it requires an interval of re-
pose just as the muscles do.

In febrile attacks, the coats of the stomach were often
observed by Dr Beaumont to present a somewhat dry
and inflamed appearance, followed sometimes by an erup-
tion of whitish vesicles. In this state the gastric juice
is generally sparingly secreted and somewhat altered in
quality. Hence the impaired power of digestion and the
generally impaired appetite in fever, and the folly of giv-
ing solid food, which serves only to increase the irrita-
tion, and impair still farther the already diminished gastric
secretion. In many slight fits of indigestion appearances
of this kind presented themselves, and were easily remov-
ed by a short abstinence and a little laxative medicine.

Medical men are often ridiculed for the universality of
their recommendation to their patients to live low. The
appearances mentioned above added to the fact, that, as a
general rule, mankind eat too much, explain the frequent
necessity of the advice, and experience shews the benefit
of following it. Purgatives are in common use during

316 CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR.

health, only because we insist upon eating habitually more
than the system requires, or than the gastric juice can digest.

In indigestion, a sense of sinking and faintness in the
region of the stomach, is often complained of. Dr Beau-
mont mentions that St Martin frequently experienced the
same sensations when the quantity of gastric juice with-
drawn from the stomach during health exceeded one and
a half or two ounces ; and that, during the existence of
the erythematic eruption, the same symptoms, accom-
panied with dimness of sight, came on much earlier, and
before more than two or three drachms of juice were ex-
tracted. In dyspepsia, therefore, the same feelings may
sometimes be an indication of a diminished secretion, and
of the consequent impropriety of a full diet.

Many persons who obviously live too freely, protest
against the fact, because they feel no immediate incon-
venience either from the quantity of food or the stimu-
lants in which they habitually indulge ; or, in other
words, because they experience no pain, sickness, or
headach — nothing perhaps except slight fulness and op-
pression, which soon go off. Observation, extended over
a sufficient length of time, shews, however, that the con-
clusion drawn is entirely fallacious, and that the real
amount of injury is not felt at the moment merely, be-
cause, for a wise purpose, Nature has deprived us of any
consciousness of either the existence or the state of the
stomach during health. In accordance with this, Dr
Beaumont's experiments prove that extensive erythema-
tic inflammation of the mucous coat of the stomach was
of frequent occurrence in St Martin after excesses in eat-

CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR. 317

ing, and especially in drinking, even when no marked
general symptom was present to indicate its existence.
Occasionally febrile heat, nausea, headach, and thirst were
complained of, but not always. Had St Martin's sto-
mach and its inflamed patches not been visible to the eye,
he too might have pleaded that his temporary excesses
did him no harm, but when they presented themselves in
such legible characters that Dr Beaumont could not miss
seeing them, argument and supposition were at an end,
and the broad fact could not be denied.

In this point of view, I almost regret that a sufficient
number of experiments were not made by Dr Beaumont
expressly to demonstrate the general effects of ardent
spirits upon the coats of the stomach. So much has
been done of late years to discourage the abuse of stimu-
lants of every kind, with so much benefit to society, that
one grudges the loss of any opportunity of assisting in
the promotion of so good an object. Still, the experi-
ments unintentionally made upon himself by St Martin's
occasional fits of intemperance, afford an instructive les-
son to all who are willing to receive and enforce it, and
as such I recommend them to the attentive consideration
of the reader. The very acrid nature of the contents of
the stomach, occasionally witnessed during the existence
of the eruption, is a proof at once of great disturbance in
the function, and of the necessity of avoiding every thing
but the mildest nourishment till health is restored. It is
quite common, however, for a patient, immediately after
complaining of the acrimony of the last meal, to sit down
to table and eat as heartily of all sorts of food as if the

318 CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR.

Stomach were in perfect health. Dr Beaumont shews
why this cannot be done with impmiity.

Dr Beaumont shews hulk to be as necessary for healthy
digestion as the presence of the nutrient principle itself.
The stomach and bowels being adapted by nature for the
reception of a mixed diet, it follows that they cannot act
with the same effect upon very concentrated food in small
quantity. This, in fact, is felt almost instinctively, as
was amusingly shewn in the reply of the spokesman of a
party of the Veddahs or wild hunters of Ceylon to my
friend Mr H. Marshall, when the latter inquired why his
people always mixed the pounded fibres of soft and de-
cayed wood with the honey on which they fed when meat
was not to be had. " I cannot tell you," said the practi-
cal Veddah, " but I know that the helly must he filled^^
An answer in strict accordance with the structure and
functions of the digestive organs, and more replete with
true philosophy than many of the physiological theories
advanced by much whiter men.* It is, perhaps, on the
same principle that soups and fluid diet are insufficient
to support the system. The watery part of soup being
absorbed without undergoing digestion, the really nutri-
tive portion is left in too soft and concentrated a state to
excite the healthy action of the stomach ; and according-
ly, soups and liquids are well known to disagree with weak
stomachs.

There are other points on which I might have offered

* This practice is described by Mr Marshall in his interestii:g
•' Notes on the Medical Topography of the Interior of Ceylon^''^ p. 36.

CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE EDITOR. 311)

a few remarks, but unwillingness either to increase the
size of this volume, or to repeat what I have said else-
where, induces me to stop short and leave the reader to
draw his own conclusions from the facts laid before
him.

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L WORKS BY DR A. COMBE.

Dedicated by permission to the King of the Belgians.

The PRINCIPLES of PHYSIOLOGY applied to
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in it. Part II — 1. Proper Times of Eating ; 2. Proper Quan-
tity of Food ; 3. Of the Kinds of Food, according to age, sex,
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served before and after eating ; 5. On Drinks and their Eflfects ;
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the nature of man, and his relations to the external world, that we have ever met
with; and we rejoice to see it brought within the reach of all classes." — Scotsman.

" A work of great originality — abounding with valuable information, and rea-
sonings the most admirable ; conveyed in a style so plain as to be level to the
meanest capacity, and yet so eloquent, from the force of its arguments, as to go
home equally to the understandings of the most illiterate and the most learned."
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" Evidently the production of a very superior and highly cultivated mind." —
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would not, were they all most carefully studied for years, convey into the mind
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and the history of society, than are to be reaped from the labours of ecclesiastical
teachers." — TV. J. Fox.

On the FUNCTIONS of the CEREBELLUM, by
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Price 3d.

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GENERAL OBSERVATIONS on the PRINCI-
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Post 8vo, price Sixpence.

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THOUGHTS on PHYSICAL EDUCATION, and

the True Mode of Improving the Condition of Man ; and on
the Study of the Greek and Latin Languages. By Charles
Caldwell, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine and
Clinical Practice in Transylvania University. With Notes by
BoBERT Cox, and a Becommendatory Preface by Geor&e
Combe.

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In one vol. 12mo, pp. 288, price 4s., a Second Edition of

The PHILOSOPHY of EDUCATION, with its
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TABLES for the CHEMICAL ANALYSIS ot

INORGANIC BODIES. By James Cox, M.D.

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will form a u?eful addition to the library of the surgeon and apothecary." —
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an immense mass of information, so that they will certainly form a most valuable
addition to a chemical laboratory. To tho=e not much conversant with chemical
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they require with respect to the action of the usual reagents, and thus saving
them not only a great deal of time, but also the trouble of consulting the larger
chemical books." — Scotsman.

Maclachlan & Stewart, Edinburgh; Longman & Co.,
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<*^».o ^

If-

COUNTWAY LIBRARY OF MEDICINE

B38
1838

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